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REESE  -LIBRARY 

i  IF    THK 

UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA. 

Received <=^U  £<2~  / 

Accessions  No. .  Jt  sJ M  JT3       Shelf  No.  - 


•SO 


THE 


USE  OF  STEEL 


FOR  CONSTRUCTIVE  PURPOSES  ; 


METHOD  OF  WORKING,  APPLYING  AND  TESTING  PLATES 
AND  BARS  ; 


BY 

J.-BARBA, 
•  i 

CHIEF  NAVAL  CONSTRUCTOR  AT  L'ORIENT. 


( Translated  from   the  French} 
WITH  A  PREFACE 

BY    ALEX.    L.    HOLLEY,    C.E. 

SAMUEL  H.  WHEELER, 


D.     VAN     NOSTRAND,     PUBLISHER, 

23  MURRAY  STREET  AND  27  WARREN  STREET. 
1875. 


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Cb 
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COPYRIGHT. 

D.  VAN  NOSTRAND. 

j875. 


OF  THE 

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PREFACE. 


THERE  are  two  groups  of  facts  regarding  the  modern 
steel  business,  which  especially  concern  the  American 
manufacturers  and  users  of  this  material. 

ist.  Three  French  men-of-war,  built  out  of  Bessemer 
and  Martin  steels,  were  so  successfully  constructed  in  1873 
that  three  more  large  ships  were  ordered  in  1874,  to  be 
built  from  the  same  materials.  Several  Bessemer  works 
in  England  are  running  exclusively  on  a  general  mer- 
chant product  having  a  large  range  of  grades  and  uses, 
and  taking  the  place  of  both  crucible  steel  and  wrought 
iron.  The  Continental  works  are  turning  probably  a 
third  of  their  Bessemer  product  and  nearly  all  their 
Martin  product  into  other  forms  than  rails.  All  the 
late  locomotives — many  hundreds — on  the  London  and 
North  Western  Railway  are  built  of  Bessemer  steel,  ex- 
cepting only  the  wheels  and  necessary  castings.  Every- 
where, abroad,  Bessemer  and  Martin  steels  are  more  and 
more  extensively  and  satisfactorily  employed  for  ship 
and  boiler  plates,  beams,  channels  and  angles  for  ships, 
bridges  and  other  structures,  railway  tires  and  axles, 
general  shafting,  agricultural  implements  and  the  multi- 


iv  PREFACE. 

tudinous  forms  of  machinery  bars,  and  forgings.  In  the 
railway  and  machine  shops,  the  bridge  works  and  ship- 
yards of  Europe  and  of  France  especially,  the  method  of 
treating  steel — of  heating  and  shaping  it  and  building  it 
successfully  into  machinery  and  engineering  structures, 
has  become,  what  it  must  everywhere  become,  before  this 
material  can  be  employed  to  the  best  advantage,  a  dis- 
tinct and  highly  developed  art. 

2d.  In  the  United  States,  out  of  a  Bessemer  product 
of  350,000  tons  per  year,  probably  less  than  6000  tons  are 
used  for  other  purposes  than  rails.  Very  few  Bessemer 
works  have  any  machinery  for  producing  the  various 
constructive  shapes  required,  or  any  experience  in  mak- 
ing steel  of  high  or  low  grades.  Bessemer  manufacturers 
are  talking  about  reducing  product,  in  the  fear  that  rail 
orders  will  fall  below  the  capacity  of  their  works.  Mar- 
tin steel  is  now  made  in  American  works,  regularly  and 
successfully,  of  all  grades,  from  springs  down  to  boiler- 
plates, thus  furnishing  every  constructive  grade  required. 
Engineers  and  machinists  are  generally  asking  for  just 
such  material  as  steel  has  proved  to  be  abroad,  but  are 
yet  hesitating  about  the  use  of  steel,  because  our  Besse- 
mer manufacturers  have  not  got  much  into  the  way  of 
making  other  grades  than  rail  steel,  and  Martin  manufac- 
turers have  not  until  quite  recently  begun  to  adopt  those 
improvements  in  plant  and  practice  which  will  make  steel 
cheaply  ;  and  also  because  our  artisans  have  not  in  most 
cases  made  any  study  of  the  art  of  working  steel,  and 
are  therefore  afraid  of  it.  Experts  say  that  the  use  of 
wood,  not  only  in  ocean  vessels,  but  in  river  and  lake 
boats  and  barges,  must  soon  give  way  to  the  use  of  metal, 
as  it  has  done  abroad  and  is  beginning  to  do  here ;  and 
there  are  thousands  of  wooden  bridges  on  our  railways 


PREFACE.  V 

and  highways  which  must  soon  be  replaced  by  metal ;  so 
that  for  these  two  large  uses,  not  to  speak  of  general 
machine  construction,  there  is  growing  up  a  vast  market 
for  a  better  material  than  iron.  Excellent  pig  for  the 
production  of  cheap  steel  is  obtainable  in  all  parts  of  the 
country,  and  ferro-manganese,  upon  which  important 
qualities  of  constructive  steels  depend,  is  now  cheap 
enough  to  warrant  its  general  use. 

In  short,  with  every  facility  for  making  the  products 
so  largely  needed  here,  and  so  largely  used  abroad — with 
the  best  steel  works  in  the  world,  and  working  organiza- 
tions in  them  which  have  increased  product  and  de- 
creased cost  in  a  remarkable  degree,  we  are  devoting 
more  concentrated  action  to  schemes  for  preventing 
over  production '  than  we  are  to  adapting  grades  and 
shapes  of  product  to  the  various  constructive  uses,  and  to 
teaching  artisans  how  to  heat,  shape  and  apply  them. 

In  view  of  this  state  of  affairs,  it  seems  to  me  that 
the  dissemination  among  our  steel  makers  and  users,  of 
the  facts  contained  in  M.  Barba's  little  book,  should  be 
of  great  advantage,  ist,  to  our  engineers  and  machinists, 
by  making  more  conspicuous  the  nature  of  steel  and 
of  the  new  and  important  art  of  working  steel :  2d,  to 
the  managers  and  owners  of  large  enterprises  in  con- 
struction and  transportation,  by  revealing  to  them  the 
fact  that  steel  is  such  a  tractable  and  valuable  material ; 
and  3d,  to  our  steel  makers,  by  showing  them  that  a  vast 
want  exists  for  products  which  they  can  make,  and  what 
kind  of  steel  and  treatment  of  steel  will  enable  them  to 
take  advantage  of  this  existing  want. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  M.  Barba  did  not  give  us 
the  analyses  of  the  steels  employed — not  even  their  per- 
centages of  carbon.  This  addition  would  have  made  his 


vi  PREFACE. 

work  complete.  But  by  comparing  the  tensile  resist- 
ances and  elongations  of  the  steels  he  mentions,  with 
those  of  other  steels  from  the  same  works  and  with 
Belgian  steels,  of  which  I  have  analyses  and  mechanical 
tests,  I  judge  the  materials  put  into  these  French  ships 
to  have  had  between  0.25  and  0.33  per  cent,  of  carbon. 
These  or  even  lower  steels  can  be  readily  and  uniformly 
produced  in  our  Bessemer  works,  while  Martin  steel  can 
be  made  as  low  as  o.  10  carbon  without  difficulty. 

It  is  very  interesting  and  important  to  note  that  steels 
which  harden  and  temper  as  readily  as  these  do,  and 
which  hence  so  readily  acquire  dangerous  internal  strains, 
can  be  made  so  completely  tractable  and  can  be  so 
insured  against  fracture  in  manufacture  and  use,  by  proper 
manipulation  and  by  heating  at  the  right  times — addi- 
tions to  the  ordinary  iron-working  processes,  which  are 
not  so  very  costly  when  works  are  once  fitted  out  writh 
suitable  apparatus. 

Another  important  fact  demonstrated  at  the  Barrow 
works  in  England  (set  forth  by  Mr.  Josiah  T.  Smith  in  a 
late  paper  before  the  Inst.  of  Civil  Engineers),  and  most 
completely  proved  by  these  French  experiments,  is  that 
the  injury  done  to  steels  of  rail  grade  and  below,  by  cold 
punching,  is  confined  to  the  SKin  of  the  hole  (T£o  inch 
thick  in  this  case)  ;  and  that  this  injury  is  only  harden- 
ing by  pressure  which  may  be  completely  removed  by 
tempering  or  annealing,  or  by  reaming  out  this  thin 
ring  of  hardened  metal.  The  manner  in  which  this  was 
proved,  is  a  commentary  on  the  nicety  of  French  experi- 
menting. 

It  has  not  probably  occurred  to  many  boiler-makers 
who  could  do  nothing  with  these  grades  of  steel,  and  so 
have  condemned  steel  altogether,  that  shearing  and 


PREFACE.  vii 

locally  hammering  plates  puts  them  in  a  condition  sim- 
ilar to  that  produced  by  cold  punching,  which  reduces 
the  strength  of  the  parts  most  affected,  above  20  per 
cent.  Nor  has  it  perhaps  occurred  to  engineers  who 
believe  in  steel  and  are  anxious  to  give  it  a  fair  chance, 
to  dispense  with  that  class  of  smiths  and  boiler  makers 
who  cannot  be  told  anything  about  the  treatment  of  steel, 
and  will  not  yield  to  any  new  requirements — just  as  these 
French  engineers  turned  out  the  skilled  workmen  who 
could  not  treat  plates  and  bars  without  cracking  them, 
and  substituted  carpenters,  who  being  willing  to  follow 
instructions,  made  a  success  from  the  start. 

The  adaptability  of  steel  to  constructive  purposes  is 
specially  shown  in  stamped  work,  such  as  pieces  shaped 
like  a  low-crowned  hat,  of  which  700  were  produced  with- 
out losing  one,  while  not  one  good  piece  could  be 
stamped  out  of  iron.  The  facts  that  steel  crystallizes 
less  than  iron  by  heating  without  working,  and  that  steel 
plates  have  practically  the  same  strength  with,  and  across 
the  "  grain,"  are  greatly  in  its  favor. 

The  hardening  of  beams  and  angles  of  comparatively 
uniform  section,  in  the  last  passes  of  the  rolls,  is  demon- 
strated, and  this  should  be  a  rebuke  to  those  engineers 
who  insist  that  a  rail  is  as  unlikely  to  break  when  it  has 
a  very  thin  flange  which  must  come  out  of  the  rolls  at  a 
dark  red  heat,  as  if  it  had  a  thicker  flange  which  would 
finish  hotter. 

The  manner  in  which  carbon  exists  in  steel — in  solu- 
tion and  in  mechanical  mixture — also  the  hardening 
effects  of  suddenly  cooling  steel  and  of  cold  hammering, 
shearing  and  punching,  viz.,  hardening  due  to  pressure; 
also  the  solution  and  dissemination  of  carbon  by  heat, 
are  fully  treated  in  ihLs  work,  and  will  doubtless  make 


viii  PREFACE. 

clear  a  subject  which  in  many  practical  minds  has  .been 
more  or  less  indefinite  if  not  mysterious. 

The  more  important  conclusions  as  to  treatment,  to 
which  the  author  comes,  and  to  which  the  artisan  in  steel 
will  have  to  come,  and  which  are  also  set  forth  by  Mr. 
Krupp  and  other  steel  makers  who  have  pushed  their 
wonderful  products  against  the  tide  of  "  practical "  con- 
servatism into  vast  constructive  uses,  are  ; — 

1st.     Avoid  local  pressures  in  working  cold  steel. 

2d.  If  local  pressures  must  occur,  remove  their 
effects  by  annealing — not  once,  but  as  often  as  dangerous 
pressures  are  produced. 

The  rationale  of  this  treatment  is  obvious  ;  steel  is 
more  dense  than  iron,  hence  it  must  be  more  humored 
in  its  cold  treatment.  But  when  it  once  gets  into  work- 
ing shapes  without  internal  strains,  it  is  much  stronger 
and  safer  than  iron. 

It  should  seem  that  such  careful,  thorough  and  ob- 
viously trustworthy  experiments  as  those  detailed  in  this 
book,  and  the  conclusions  to  which  they  inevitably  give 
rise,  should  prove  a  stimulus  to  our  steel  makers,  to 
enlarge  the  range  of  manufacture  rather  than  to  curtail 
production  because  their  one  specialty  may  possibly 
exceed  the  present  demand — and  to  engineers  and  to 
constructors  of  government  works,  to  take  a  leading 
part  in  all  efforts  to  adapt  the  new  material  and  its 
treatment,  rather  than  to  wish  them  well  from  afar  off. 

Any  remarks  on  this  subject  would  seem  hardly  com- 
plete without  some  allusion  to  the  work  of  the  existing 
U.  S.  Commission  to  test  iron  and  steel.  The  work 
they  have  laid  out  is  much  more  comprehensive  than  that 
detailed  in  this  book,  although  it  can  hardly  be  more 
thorough  in  certain  directions.  It  is  intended  not  merely 


PREFACE.  ix 

to  give  the  qualities  of  these  metals  as  they  are  found  in 
the  market,  but  to  show  what  compositions  as  well  as 
what  treatments  of  iron  and  steel  will  adapt  it  to  all 
uses  in  engineering  and  the  arts.  If  any  class  in  the 
community  should  be  anxious  to  forward  this  enter- 
prise, it  should  be  the  makers  of  cheap  steels,  whose 
range  is  now  so  limited,  and  to  whose  products  the 
results  of  these  experiments  must  inevitably  commend 
engineers  and  constructors  at  large. 

A.  L.  HOLLEY. 

NEW  YORK,  Oct.  15,  1875. 


INTRODUCTION. 


WITHIN  the  last  few  years,  metallurgical  industry 
has  realized  in  the  manufacture  of  steel,  a  notable  prog- 
ress, chiefly  in  the  Bessemer  and  the  Martin  processes.  It 
is  now  possible  to  obtain  from  these  metals,  plates  and  bars 
of  remarkable  homogeneity.  Their  qualities  soon  attract- 
ed the  attention  of  Constructors,  who  have  sought  to  bring 
them  into  general  use. 

Certain  steels  elongate  and  resist  rupture  much  bet- 
ter than  merchant  irons.  It  is  possible  by  substituting 
steel  for  iron,  especially  under  tensile  strains  only,  to 
notably  decrease  the  size  of  the  parts,  and  consequently 
the  weight  of  materials  used  in  construction. 

Steel  Works  can  now  furnish  plates  of  great  area, 
and  long  angles  and  bars  of  regular  texture,  and  free 
from  the  defects  often  met  in  piled  iron.*  The  use  of 
pieces  of  large  dimensions  dispenses  with  a  multiplicity 
of  joints  and  allows  a  reduction  in  the  manufacturing 
expenses  while  it  realizes  a  new  economy  in  weight. 

*The  Creusot  and  Terre-Noire  Works  have  furnished  for  L'Orient 
and  Brest  a  great  number  of  plates  up  to  75  square  feet  area,  and 
angles  50  feet  long.  For  I  beams,  a  length  of  43  feet  has  not  yet  been 
exceeded.  Greater  dimensions  could  be  obtained,  the  manufacturers  say, 
only  by  considerably  enlarging  the  mill  engine,  a  6oo-horse-power  engine 
as  it  now  stands.  They  hope  shortly  to  go  beyond  this  limit  and  to  reach 
the  length  of  59  feet — necessary  in  naval  constructions. 


4  INTRODUCTION. 

The  cost  of  steel — the  economy  that  may  be  realized 
in  its  actual  use,  is  not  yet  clearly  ascertained  ;  hence 
it  is  impossible  to  state  that  land  constructions  made 
of  this  metal  will  always  be  cheap.  But,  in  the  navy, 
the  advantages  in  the  use  of  steel  are  much  more  evident. 
A  notable  reduction  in  the  weight  of  the  frame  of  a  ship 
allows  a  corresponding  increase  in  the  weight  of  the 
armament,  armor-plating,  machinery,  load,  etc.  If  two 
ships  are  built  under  the  same  conditions  of  solidity,  one 
of  iron  and  the  other  of  steel,  the  latter  will  have  quali- 
ties which  are  superior  from  several  points  of  view. 

In  order  to  give  a  steel  ship  the  same  defensive  and 
offensive  power  as  an  iron  ship,  it  will  not  be  necessary 
to  give  it  the  same  dimensions.  Either  the  draft,  the 
length,  or  the  breadth  may  be  reduced,  and  either  of 
these  reductions  is  of  great  importance,  whichever  may 
be  adopted. 

In  view  of  the  remarkable  properties  of  steel,  the  ef- 
forts of  constructors  to  make  its  use  general,  especially  in 
the  navy,  will  be  understood. 

Unfortunately,  along  with  these  qualities,  steel  has 
shown,  wherever  used,  some  abnormal  defects  appar- 
ently inexplicable  a  priori.  Some  completely  finished 
parts  have  been  broken  under  the  slightest  stress,  and 
sometimes  without  any  apparent  cause.  Some  plates, 
drilled,  and  ready  to  be  put  in  place,  when  left  alone  for  a 
few  hours,  were  found  cracked  ;  others  were  cracked  in 
riveting.  In  short,  steel  has  evinced,  especially  after  heat- 
ing, defects,  the  causes  of  which  seemed  undiscernible. 

People  have  tried  to  explain  these  facts  on  the  theory 
of  tempering  in  a  current  of  air,  the  hardening  influence 
of  the  ground,  etc.,  etc.  These  hypotheses,  which  seemed 


INTRODUCTION.  5 

correct  in  a  few  isolated  cases,  were  not  verified  under  other 
circumstances  ;  and  the  difficulty  of  working  steel  accord- 
ing to  certain  principles  has  in  the  end  thrown  much 
discredit  on  the  use  of  this  metal. 

A  few  years  ago,  in  England,  steel  was  used  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  in  government  ships  and  in  the  merchant 
navy;  but  its  use  was  limited.  The  great  insurance 
companies  gave  their  sanction,  making  reservations  at 
the  same  time.  Since  then,  the  recognized  defects  of 
steel  have  been  such  that  its  use  has  not  developed  as 
might  have  been  expected. 

In  France,  this  metal  has  been  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  bridges  and  boilers,  and  chiefly  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  rails.  In  the  merchant  service  and  in  the  navy 
its  use  has  been  limited  to  the  manufacture  of  boilers, 
masts,  boats,  or  small  ships  of  little  importance. 

In  1873,  three  large  men-of-war  were  commenced  at 
Brest  and  L'Orient,  according  to  the  plans  of  M.  de  Bussy, 
naval  engineer.  Steel  was  to  form  the  greater  part  of 
the  construction  ;  the  frames,  the  internal  plating,  the 
bulk-heads,  the  decks  were  to  be  made  of  this  metal 
The  external  plating  alone  was  to  be  iron.  We  have  not 
dared,  in  the  face  of  the  defects  previously  attributed  to 
steel  plates,  to  try  to  fashion  them  to  the  complicated 
forms  met  in  this  external  plating.  Never  had  the  En- 
glish, nor  any  foreign  nation  employed  steel  on  such  a 
large  scale.  The  designer  of  these  three  ships,  and  the 
Minister  who  approved  the  plans,  boldly  took  a  new 
departure.  The  remarkable  qualities  of  the  materials 
furnished  by  Creusot  and  Terre-Noire,  and  the  method 
followed  in  the  ship-building  works,  will  certainly  lead  to 
the  successful  completion  of  these  ships,  and  thus  justify 


6  INTROD  UCTION. 

the  predictions  of  the  author  of  the  project,  who  directs 
the  construction  of  the  two  ships  built  at  L/ Orient.* 

The  results -obtained  so  far  have  been  judged  so  satisfac- 
tory, that  recently  (December,  '74)  the  Minister  of  Marine 
has  ordered  the  building  of  three  large  new  ships  in  which 
steel  is  to  be  used,  as  in  the  preceding  ones,  for  the  con- 
struction of  all  parts  not  in  direct  contact  with  sea  water. 

Work  of  the  varied  character  to  which  plates  and  bars 
must  be  subjected  in  such  constructions,  has  given  rise 
to  the  series  of  researches  and  observations  which  I  pro- 
pose briefly  to  describe.  I  have  thought  that  at  this  time, 
when  few  data  on  the  manner  of  working  steel  are  known, 
this  statement  might  furnish  useful  information. 

The  composition  of  steel,  so  long  disputed,  seems 
about  certain  now.  It  was  brought  to  light  by  some  re- 
markable works,  particularly  those  of  Mr.  Caron  and  M. 
Joessel,  naval  engineer.  I  have  found  in  their  works, 
some  considerations  which  I  have  thought  necessary  to 
reproduce  here.  All  the  facts  I  have  observed  seem  to 
closely  agree  with  the  ideas  of  these  authors  ;  they  con- 
firm their  theory,  which  I  have  thought  proper  to  adopt, 
in  the  actual  state  of  our  knowledge  ;  but  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  like  all  theories,  this  one  constantly  needs 
to  be  modified  by  experience,  and  is-  yet  far  from  having 
reached  absolute  certainty.  Besides,  I  only  proposed,  in 
developing  it  here,  to  make  it  a  convenient  means  of 
grouping  the  different  facts  stated,  in  order  to  arrive  at  sim- 
ple and  practical  methods  of  working  and  manufacture. 

*  At  the  time  of  writing,  these  ships  are  not  finished ;  but  the  greater 
part  of  the  material  has  been  worked  up,  fitted  and  riveted.  All  the  dif- 
ficult pieces  are  nearly  done.  1,653,000  Ibs.  of  steel  plates,  22,960  ft.  of 
angle  iron,  and  19,680  ft.  of  I  beams  have  been  made  up.  We  are  there- 
fore certain  of  the  success  of  these  constructions. 


CHAPTER  I. 

COMPOSITION    OF    STEEL ITS    CHIEF    PROPERTIES — TEMPERING 

AND   ANNEALING. 

THE  metals  designated  in  the  trade  as  cast  iron  and  steel 
owe  their  characteristic  properties  to  the  presence  of  a  certain 
quantity  of  carbon  either  mechanically  mixed  or  in  solution 
with  the  iron.  These  metals  may  contain  other  substances 
more  or  less  affecting  these  properties  ;  chiefly  phosphorus, 
silicon,  sulphur  and  manganese.  But  neither  of  these  sub- 
stances is  necessary  to  the  constitution  of  cast  iron  or  steel. 
It  is  sufficient  to  mention  that  they  are  present  in  most  of  the 
irons  of  commerce,  without  studying  the  considerable  influence 
they  may  exert. 

Putting  aside,  then,  all  considerations  relating  to  the 
presence  of  foreign  matters,  cast  irons  and  steels  are  car- 
burized  irons.  Carbon  exists  in  them  either  in  a  stats  of 
solution  or  of  mixture,  without  forming  any  clearly  defined 
carburet. 

"  Steel  is  a  solidified  solution  of  carbon  in  chemically  pure 
iron.  This  solution  in  a  liquid  state  is  not  saturated  except  in 
case  of  the  steel  which  contains  the  maximum  of  carbon 
which  iron  can  hold  in  solution.  Cast  iron  is  a  saturated 
solution  of  carbon  in  iron,  with  an  excess  of  carbon  in  a  state 
of  mechanical  mixture.  It  might  be  defined  as  steel  con- 
taining carbon  in  mechanical  mixture.  In  this  state  (mixture) 


8  THE   USE  OF  STEEL. 

the  amount  of  carbon  is  larger,  in  proportion  as  that  held  in 
solution  is  smaller,  or  as  the  total  quantity  of  carbon  con- 
tained is  greater.  So  grey  cast  iron  is  a  slightly  carburized 
steel  with  much  carbon  mixed,  and  white  cast  iron  is  a  more 
carburized  steel  with  less  mixed  carbon."* 

The  phenomena  of  the  solution  of  carbon  in  iron  to  form 
steel,  group  themselves  around  the  four  following  principal 
laws  : 

1.  The  quantity  of  carbon  iron  can  contain  in  solution  is 
greater  as  the  temperature  increases. 

2.  By  slow  cooling,  part  of  the  carbon  is  separated  from 
the  solution  and  remains  in  a  state  of  mixture. 

3.  By  rapid  cooling  or  by  a  sufficient  external  pressure, 
the   greater   part   of  the   carbon   is  maintained  in  solution. 
Rapid  cooling  acts  in  this  case  by  the  pressure  resulting  from 
it.     If  the  carbon  is  mixed,  an  external  pressure  produces  a 
solution  in  greater  or  less  proportion  according  to  its  intensity. 

4.  The  temperature  at  which  melted  steel  is  solidified 
decreases  in  proportion  to  its  richness  in  carbon. 

These  laws  of  the  solution  of  carbon  in  iron  conform  to 
those  which  regulate  the  solubility  of  solids  and  gases  in  liquids. 

i  st.  The  solubility  of  solids  generally  increases  with  the 
temperature. 

2d.  When  a  solution  made  at  a  high  temperature  is 
cooled,  part  of  the  solid  is  separated. 

3d.  The  solution  would  probably  maintain  itself  under  a 
sufficient  pressure  \  but  no  experiment  has  been  made  on  this 
subject,  to  my  knowledge  ;  a  trial,  to  verify  this  point,  would 
probably  be  very  difficult  of  execution,  on  account  of  the 
enormous  pressure  required.  The  solubility  of  gases  increases 
with  the  pressure. 

4th.  Finally,  solutions  are  generally  solidified  at  temper- 
atures decreasing  as  the  solutions  become  more  intense. 

*  Experiences  sur  les  fers,  les  fontes  et  les  aciers.  JOESSEL,  Naval 
Engineer. 


COMPOSITION  OF  STEEL,   ETC.  9 

The  rapid  and  slow  cooling  of  heated  steel  constitute  tem- 
pering and  annealing,  two  operations  which  play  an  important 
part  in  the  use  of  the  material. 

When  any  metal  is  tempered,  that  is  to  say,  rapidly  cooled, 
the  external  layer  cools  first,  and  it  does  this  all  the  quicker  as 
the  difference  in  temperature  between  the  body  and  the  liquid 
in  which  it  is  immersed  is  greater.  The  conducting  power  of 
the  liquid  used  has  also  a  great  influence  on  the  rapidity  of 
cooling :  tempering  in  mercury,  for  instance,  will  be  more  in- 
tense than  tempering  in  water. 

This  cooled  external  layer  contracts  and  presses  strongly 
on  the  inside,  which  is  yet  at  a  high  temperature ;  recipro- 
cally, it  receives  from  the  inside  the  same  pressure.  Another 
phenomenon  is  a  consequence  of  this  contraction  ;  in  order 
to  contain  the  internal  volume,  the  external  layers  must 
stretch  at  the  expense  of  their  elasticity;  if  the  tempering 
has  been  intense  enough  they  may  exceed  their  limit  of  elas- 
ticity and  stretch  permanently.  If  tempering  has  been  incom- 
plete or  slight,  this  limit  not  being  reached,  the  extension  will  be 
but  momentary,  and  will  disappear  when  cooling  is  complete- 
It  is  known  that  these  phenomena  are  practically  taken 
advantage  of,  to  break  cast  iron  blocks,  which  could  not  be 
easily  effected  by  blows  ;  they  are  heated  red  and  cooled  in  a 
stream  of  water.  The  external  surface  contracts  and  passes 
its  elastic  limit ;  as  it  is  capable  of  only  slight  stretching 
before  breaking  ;  cracks  show  themselves  on  the  surface,  and 
a  comparatively  light  blow  is  sufficient  to  break  the  block 
into  several  pieces-. 

During  the  second  period  of  tempering,  the  cooling  spreads 
to  the  centre.  In  their  turn,  the  central  fibres  contract  on 
account  of  the  lower  temperature  ;  but  they  are  bound  to  the 
external  fibres  which  have  exceeded  their  limit  of  elasticity  ; 
they  must  then  stretch  at  the  expense' of  their  elasticity  as  they 
contract  ;  they,  at  the  same  time,  cause  a  contraction  of  the 
external  fibres. 


10 


THE    USE   OF  STEEL. 


A  tempered  body  is  therefore  subjected  to  direct  forces 
which  are  balanced  by  molecular  tensions.  The  forces  which 
exist  after  tempering  can  be  exhibited  by  suppressing  a  part 
of  them.  If  a  bar  of  tempered  iron,  squared  on  all  sides,  is 
cut  in  two  longitudinally  in  a  planer,  care  being  taken  to  hold  it 
in  an  invariable  position,  each  of  the  pieces  assumes,  when 
left  to  itself,  a  curved  form,  the  concavity  of  which  is  on  the 
planed  side.  This  form  demonstrates  a  tenison  in  this  part, 
resulting  from  the  second  period  of  tempering.  The  forces 
brought  into  play  in  the  first  period  would  have  produced  the 
opposite  effect  if  they  alone  had  acted. 

Bodies  increase  in  volume  when  they  are  tempered.  M. 
Caron  has  observed  the  following  variations  of  steel  bars : — 

TABLE  NO.  I. 


NATURAL  STATE. 

AT    RED    HEAT. 

AFTER 
TEMPERING. 

Length  

2O.OO 

2O.  72 

in  n; 

Width  

I.OO 

I  .Ot 

I.OI 

I    OO 

I    OT, 

I    OI 

Volume 

20   OO 

20    ?S7 

2O    T.ZI 

In  these  bars  the  length  decreased  and  the  width  and 
thickness  increased ;  under  the  influence  of  an  internal  pres- 
sure the  bar  behaves  like  any  homogeneous  body  subjected  to 
deformation  by  an  internal  force;  it  tends  to  assume  the 
spherical  form, 

M.  Caron  mentions  another  instance  of  a  bar  of  rolled  steel : 

TABLE  NO.  II. 


NATURAL  STATE. 

AFTER 
TEMPERING. 

2O.OO 

20.4C 

Width  

1.51 

I.Jl 

"?.7o 

•J.7Q 

Volume  

in  .74 

114.25 

COMPOSITION  OF  STEEL,  ETC.  IT 

In  this  example  tempering  has  again  produced  an  increase 
of  volume ;  but  unlike  the  preceding  case,  the  greatest  dimen- 
sion has  increased  and  the  others  have  not  changed.  This 
contradiction  is  apparent  only.  It  is  explained  by  the  lack  of 
homogeneity  in  a  rolled  bar  which  is  capable  of  stretching  more 
readily  in  the  direction  of  the  rolling,  than  perpendicularly  to 
it.  The  longitudinal  fibres  exceed  their  elastic  limit  before 
this  limit  is  attained  transversely;  the  addition  to  the  volume 
consists  in  increased  length. 

Tempering  should  produce  these  effects  in  homogeneous 
bodies  only,  the  composition  of  which  does  not  vary  with  tem- 
perature and  pressure.  In  steels  and  other  carburized  irons 
tempering  is  complicated  by  the  presence  of  carbon,  the  solu- 
tion of  which  it  partly  brings  about.  It  is  difficult  to  know 
whether  the  increase  in  volume  observed  in  tempered  steel  is 
to  a  certain  extent  modified  by  this  solution  ;  by  continuing 
the  comparison  between  the  laws  of  solubility  of  solids  in 
liquids,  we  may  suppose  that  the  increase  in  volume  does  not 
result  from  this  cause  ;  for  a  solution  never  has  a  larger  volume 
than  the  total  volume  of  the  bodies  it  contains. 

The  solution  brought  about  by  tempering  steel  produces 
a  body  endowed  with  properties  different  from  those  it  pos- 
sessed before  tempering  •  but  this  body,  at  the  time  of  sud- 
den cooling,  is  always  under  the  influence  of  the  phenomena 
we  have  just  explained.  The  pressure  resulting  from  the  two 
phases  of  tempering  maintains  in  solution  a  part  of  the  car- 
bon that  would  have  become  separated  by  slow  cooling ;  this 
portion  will  be  greater  as  the  pressure  is  stronger,  and  the 
tempering  more  rapid. 

If  a  non-homogeneous  body  is  tempered,  composed  for  in- 
stance of  steels  at  different  degrees  of  carburization,  the  action 
will  be  complex  ;  it  seems  probable  that,  when  the  body  is  hot, 
the  carbon  will  be  distributed  a  little  less  irregularly,  and 
that  this  dissemination  can  increase  only  under  the  pressure 
of  the  cooled  external  fibres.  If  we  suppose  this  body  repre- 


12  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

sented  by  different  tints  according  to  its  amounts  of  carbon  in 
different  parts,  the  lines  of  demarcation,  instead  of  being  deci- 
ded as  in  the  original  state,  will  be  blended  after  tempering. 
.  This  phenomenon  of  transfusion  of  carbon  through  iron  or 
steel  heated  to  a  sufficient  temperature  is  well  known.  A  bar 
heated  with  charcoal  is  cemented,  or  dissolves  carbon  first  on 
the  surface,  then  more  deeply,  and  finally  to  the  centre,  if 
cementation  lasts  long  enough. 

When  steel  is  subjected  to  different  degrees  of  tempering, 
the  carbon  is  kept  in  solution  in  a  much  larger  proportion,  as 
tempering  is  more  energetic.  With  each  class  of  steel,  there 
should  correspond  a  degree  of  temper  at  which  the  maximum  ef- 
fect is  produced,  that  is  to  say,  when  tempering  would  cause 
the  solution  of  all  the  carbon  contained  in  the  steel.  If  the 
effort  of  contraction  were  the  same  for  all  steels,  the  intensity 
of  temper  producing  this  effect  should  increase  with  the  de- 
gree of  carburization.  But  the  contraction  or  pressure  due 
to  rapid  cooling  is  generally  insufficient  to  produce  this  result. 
The  more  the  rapidity  of  cooling  is  increased,  the  more  the 
steel  changes  its  properties.  The  least  carburized  steels  only 
could  be  excepted ;  beyond  a  certain  point  the  solving  effect 
produced  by  an  increase  of  intensity  in  tempering  ought  to 
be  nothing ;  alternations  in  elasticity  only  could  be  observed. 
But,  in  these  bodies,  the  limit  of  elasticity  is  reached  under 
relatively  slight  effects,  and  tempering,  by  a  variation  of  tem- 
perature such  as  we  can  effect,  does  not  produce  a  sufficient 
pressure  to  dissolve  all  the  carbon. 

Tempered  bodies  generally  regain  their  properties  when 
they  are  annealed,  that  is  to  say,  when  they  are  made  to  cool 
slowly  after  having  been  heated  sufficiently.  When  a  homo- 
geneous body,  the  composition  of  which  does  not  vary  by 
heating,  is  annealed,  the  effect  is  merely  to  restore  its  original 
elasticity.  To  insure  thorough  annealing,  the  operation  must 
be  performed  at  a  sufficiently  high  temperature,  and  the  cool- 
ing must  be  slower  as  the  size  of  the  body  is  greater,  so  that 


COMPOSITION  OF  STEEL,   ETC.  13 

there  may  be  between  the  interior  and  exterior,  but  a  slight 
difference  in  temperature.  The  first  condition  is  necessary 
to  allow  the  metal  to  recover  the  elasticity  it  lost  in  temper- 
ing ;  the  second  condition  should  prevent  in  the  successive 
phases  of  cooling,  the  production  of  undue  strains. 

In  complex  bodies  like  steel,  the  effect  of  annealing  is 
complex ;  besides  this  restitution  of  elasticity  to  the  fibres  al- 
tered by  tempering,  it  produces  the  separation  of  a  part  of 
the  mixed  carbon.  This  separation  must  take  place  equally 
throughout  the  mass  to  render  the  bodies  homogeneous  after 
annealing ;  and  it  is  easily  understood  that  a  very  slow  cool- 
ing is  necessary  to  insure  this  result.  For  large  pieces  of 
steel,  this  cooling  must  occupy  several  days,  sometimes  several 
weeks. 

When  steel  is  properly  annealed,  the  different  molecular 
tensions  previously  produced  are  suppressed ;  the  fibres  relax 
under  the  influence  of  heat,  and  return  to  their  first  elas- 
ticity. 

If  annealing  is  applied  to  a  piece  having  undergone  local 
tempering,  the  effect  will  be  the  same.  In  a  bar  made  up  of 
steels  of  different  degrees  of  carburization,  annealing  will 
establish  a  little  more  homogeneity.  Owing  to  the  high 
temperature  the  bar  will  have  to  bear,  the  lines  of  demarca- 
tion will  no  longer  be  as  clearly  defined,  and  the  difference 
between  the  several  parts  will  be  less,  as  the  piece  is  exposed 
longer  to  the  fire.  In  annealing,  this  more  regular  dissemina- 
tion of  carbon  is  due  only  to  the  high  temperature  to  which 
the  piece  is  raised,  while  in  tempering,  the  effect  is  increased 
by  the  pressure  resulting  from  rapid  cooling. 

Annealing  must  not  be  performed  at  too  high  a  tempera- 
ture,— near  the  melting  point, — lest  the  fibrous  texture  of  the 
metal  acquired  by  forging,  should  be  changed ;  slow  cooling 
would  crystallize  it,  and  it  would  then  have  no  elasticity, — it 
would  be  burned. 

In  the  same  steel  there  may  exist  a  series  of  intermediate 


14  THE    USE    OF  STEEL. 

states  between  the  natural  state  and  the  state  corresponding  to 
the  maximum  temper  it  can  take.  The  several  properties  of  the 
same  steel  follow  a  continuous  law  of  variation  between  these 
two  extreme  points.  In  the  natural  state,  steel  possesses  a 
hardness  increasing  as  it  contains  more  carbon  and  as  it 
approaches  more  and  more  the  maximum  of  saturation.  Ten- 
acity, or  resistance  to  breaking  follows  the  same  law,  increasing 
in  a  continuous  manner  from  soft  iron  to  the  hardest  steel. 

The  stresses  steel  can  bear  before  reaching  its  limit  of 
elasticity  follow  the  same  law.  On  the  contrary,  the  attainable 
stretching  increases  when  the  quantity  of  carbon  and  conse- 
quently the  hardness  and  tenacity  increase.  The  welding 
properties  vary  like  the  stretching  qualities ;  they  are  very 
high  in  slightly  carburized  irons,  and  are  reduced  to  almost 
nothing  in  steels  rich  in  carbon. 

When  steels  are  tempered  under  the  same  conditions, 
hardness,  tenacity  and  stretching  follow  the  same  law  that 
obtains  in  the  natural  state  ;  hardness  and  tenacity  increase 
with  temper,  and  ductility  decreases.  In  short,  the  difference 
between  a  steel  in  the  natural  state  and  the  same  steel  tem- 
pered is  less  as  carbon  decreases  and  as  the  metal  approaches 
pure  iron. 

We  will  consider  here,  only  temper  obtained  by  rapidly 
cooling  steel  heated  to  a  high  heat  in  a  cold  liquid.  Under 
these  conditions  the  changes  of  constitution  induced  by  tem- 
pering should  decrease  as  the  operation  is  performed  on  less 
carburized  steels.  With  very  high  steels,  the  elastic  limit  is 
reached  under  a  very  heavy  load  only ;  with  soft  steels  the 
elastic  limit  is  much  more  quickly  attained ;  the  same  degree 
of  cooling  will  then  produce  a  contraction  and  pressure  much 
smaller  in  the  second  case  than  in  the  first. 

From  this  statement  we  may  conclude  that,  whenever  hard- 
ness and  tenacity  are  required,  and  a  material  liable  to  de- 
formation before  breaking  is  not  desirable,  the  highest  or 
most  carburized  steel  must  be  used  ;  from  this  class  is  chosen 


COMPOSITION  OF  STEEL,   ETC.  r5 

the  steel  for  tools  that  are  not  worked  under  blows.  For 
constructive  purposes  where  a  more  elastic  material  is  needed, 
less  carburized  iron,  in  other  words,  soft  steel  must  be  used. 

We  can  conceive  that  tempering  followed  by  annealing 
might  be  used  to  improve  certain  more  or  less  carburized 
iron,  especially  to  restore  homogeneity  lost  in  the  different 
stages  of  manufacture. 

All  merchant  irons  contain  slight  quantities  of  carbon,  and 
consequently  yield,  but  in  a  less  degree,  to  the  influences  of 
tempering  and  annealing.  Heat  produces  in  iron,  a  more 
complete  solution  of  the  carbon  and  a  dissemination  of  that 
mixed  in  the  metal ;  probably  also  of  other  foreign  ingredients- 
The  pressure  which  follows  tempering  increases  this  dissemin- 
ation. Finally,  while  annealing,  the  heat  continues  the 
effect  produced,  and  slow  cooling  allows  the  molecules  to 
group  themselves  so  as  to  nearly  remove  the  several  internal 
strains. 

In  a  great  many  cases  tempering  is  followed  by  such  an 
incomplete  annealing  as  tends  to  lessen  the  molecular  ten- 
sions, while  preserving  in  the  metal  the  greater  part  of  the 
properties  due  to  tempering,  viz.,  hardness,  tenacity,  and 
also  a  more  homogeneous  composition.  Aftewards  more  or 
less  annealing  is  given  according  to  the  degree  of  elasticity 
which  is  to  be  restored. 

Partial  annealing  after  tempering  is  used  in  armor  plates. 
The  tempering  they  undergo  after  rolling  renders  them  more 
homogeneous  throughout  their  mass,  by  the  compression  it 
produces  in  every  direction.  Hardness,  or  resistance  to  the 
penetration  of  projectiles  is  increased,  but  the  metal  be- 
comes brittle,  as  the  tempering  is  more  complete,  or,  with  the 
same  range  of  temperature,  as  the  plates  are  thicker. 

Complete  annealing  would  destroy  all  brittleness ;  but  in 
order  to  preserve  some  hardness  and  prevent  any  internal 
crystallization,  annealing  is  carried  only  to  dark  red  ;  this  tem- 
perature is  insufficient  to  restore  to  the  different  fibres,  all 


1 6  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

their  elastic  properties,  but  it  allows  a  preservation  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  hardness  proceeding  from  tempering. 

In  plates  measuring  less  than  20  centimetres  (.787  in.)  in 
thickness,  this  annealing  is  sufficient  for  the  purpose  men- 
tioned ;  the  result  is  a  metal  able  to  withstand  the  penetra- 
tion of  projectiles  and  rarely  breaking  under  their  impact. 
In  thicker  plates  submitted  to  tempering  and  annealing  under 
the  same  conditions,  the .  molecular  tensions  after  tempering 
preserve  more  value  after  annealing  ;  the  plates  satisfactorily 
resist  penetration  ;  they  however,  have  considerable  brittleness. 
To  avoid  this  defect,  it  would  be  necessary  to  give  more 
intensity  to  annealing ;  the  plates  would  then  offer  less 
resistance  to  penetration,  but  they  would  no  longer  break  un- 
der blows. 

The  same  result  ought  to  be  attained  by  reducing  the  in- 
tensity of  temper ;  the  heat  to  which  the  plates  have  to  be 
raised  cannot  be  lessened,  since,  in  order  to  obtain  homogeneity, 
a  solution  of  all  foreign  matters  in  the  iron  must  be  produced  ; 
but  the  rapidity  of  cooling  can  be  diminished  by  using  a  liquid 
which  is  a  less  good  conductor  than  water,  or  by  raising  the 
temperature  of  this  water.  By  this  latter  means  the  heated 
piece  will  be  subjected  at  first  to  a  rapid  cooling  to  prevent 
separation  of  the  carbon  from  its  solution,  then  a  much  slower 
one,  to  prevent  extreme  molecular  tensions. 

These  considerations  are  verified  by  M.  Caron's  recent  re- 
searches. In  laboratory  experiments  he  has  succeeded  in 
bringing  to  the  same  degree  of  hardness,  tenacity  and  elasticity, 
some  steel  springs  tempered  and  annealed  by  the  ordinary 
process,  and  others  simply  tempered  in  hot  water.  He  ex- 
presses himself  as  follows,  upon  his  experiments  : 

"  Tempering  in  hot,  or  rather  boiling  water  singularly 
modifies  soft  steel  containing  from  To3<jo  to  yAir  °f  carbon  ; 
it  increases  its  tenacity  and  its  elasticity  without  sensibly  al- 
tering its  mildness." 

M.  Caron,  in  experiments  reported  in  the  same  article, 


COMPOSITION  OF  STEEL,  ETC.  1 7 

succeeded  in  regenerating  burned  iron  by  tempering  it  in  a 
hot  liquid  j  he  used  a  solution  of  sea  salt  heated  to  no  de- 
grees centigrade.  The  primitive  texture  is  then  restored  to 
the  metal  by  the  strong  pressure  due  to  tempering  and  the 
drawing  out  of  the  fibres  which  results  from  it.  The  slow  cool- 
ing following  this  first  effect,  allows  the  fibres  to  recover  the 
greater  part  of  their  elastic  properties,  notwithstanding  the 
previous  rapid  cooling.  It  is  well  known  that  burned  iron  is 
restored  by  raising  it  to  a  white  heat  and  submitting  it  to  an 
energetic  hammering.  It  will  be  seen  that  tempering  acts 
the  same  as  hammering ;  it  constitutes  a  real  forging  action, 
producing  a  drawing  out  of  the  metal.  It  follows  from  this 
that  the  quality  of  cast  ingots  might  be  improved  by  a  series 
of  temperings  which  would  bring  them  to  the  same  state  as  if 
they  had  undergone  a  preliminary  forging  or  rolling.  We 
have  not  been  able  to  verify  this  deduction,  not  having  steel 
ingots  at  our  disposal. 


CHAPTER  II. 

CLASSIFICATION   OF     STEELS — SOFT    STEELS    USED     AT   L'ORIENT 
AND    BREST TESTS. 

The  various  properties  of  steels — their  resistance,  their 
stretching,  the  manner  in  which  they  are  affected  by  tempering 
— furnish  a  convenient  way  of  comparing  and  classifying 
these  metals ;  it  would  be  difficult  to  do  so,  practically,  by 
taking  their  composition  as  a  basis. 

Until  a  few  years  ago,  steels  more  carburized,  and 
much  more  liable  to  the  defects  pointed  out  above,  than  the 
very  soft  metal  now  manufactured,  were  generally  used.  The 
substitution  of  ferro-manganese  for  spiegel,  to  produce 
carburization  at  the  end  of  the  Bessemer  process,  or  in  the 
Siemens-Martin  furnace,  has  contributed  to  the  production  of 
materials  containing  very  small  quantities  of  carbon,  though 
free  from  the  oxydes  of  iron  that  the  manganese  was 
designed  to  reduce  or  remove.  To  distinguish  this  steel  from 
the  one  they  had  previously  put  in  the  market,  the  manufac- 
turers have  given  it  the  name  of  metal  fondu,  or  cast  metal. 

The  steel  used  in  France  and  England  in  building  large 
ships  may  always  be  classified  among  soft  steels  ;  but  France 
alone  has  so  far,  we  believe,  worked  cast-metal  on  a  large 
scale. 

The  constructors  of  the  English  navy  demanded  for  their 
steel  plates  a  tensile  resistance  of  32.9  tons  per  sq.  in.  in  the 
direction  of  the  fibre,  and  29.8  tons  perpendicularly  to  the 
fibre. 

The  resistance  should  in  no  case  exceed  39.9  tons  per 
square  inch. 


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2O 


THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 


For  the  ships  built  at  L'Orient  and  Brest,  where  cast-metal 
alone  has  been  used,  the  minimum  tensile  resistance  required 
was  28.5  tons  per  square  inch,  with  a  corresponding  stretching 
of  20  per  cent  at  least.  For  deck  beams  made  up  of  I  bars, 
1 1 |f  in.  deep,  the  lowest  limit  of  stretching  was  put  down  to 
1 8  per  cent,  in  consideration  of  the  difficulties  of  manufacture. 
The  plates  were  furnished  in  nearly  equal  quantities  by  the 
works  at  Creusot  and  at  Terre-Noire.  The  I  beams  were 
manufactured  by  MM.  Marrel  Bros,  of  River  de  Gier  from 
Terre-Noire  steel ;  the  other  rolled  bars  and  beams  were 
furnished  by  the  Creusot  works. 

The  steels  were  manufactured  at  Terre-Noire  by  the 
Bessemer  process  and  at  Creusot  by  the  Siemens-Martin 
process.  Both  these  great  works  have  succeeded  by  means 
of  numerous  tests,  and  the  certainty  of  their  manufacture,  in 
furnishing  soft  steels  of  obviously  even  quality.  They  can 
however  vary,  at  the  wish  of  the  buyer,  the  properties  of  their 
products.  The  table  No.  Ill  is  taken  from  a  classification 
recently  adopted  by  Creusot,  of  all  the  steel  this  establishment 


I     l 


Fig.  i.     Scale  for 
Measurement  of  tensile  strains. 


furnishes  to  order.     The  figures  given  in  this  table  are  the 
result  of   a  great  many  trials;   nevertheless,  they  are  given 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STEEL,  ETC. 


21 


j 
© 


! 

j 
j 
j 
j 
I 

© 

j 
i 


only  as  indicative  and  comparative.  The  bars  subjected  to 
test  were  all  turned  to  3.93  in.  in  length,  the  section  being 
0.31  square  in.  Tempering  was  done  in  oil,  the  bars  being 
heated  as  uniformly  as  possible  to  a  temperature  corresponding 
to  bright  red. 

The  steel   furnished  to  the  Government  works  at  L'Orient 
and  Brest,  offering  a  minimum  tensile  resistance  of    28.5  tons 
!  per  square  in.  was  to  reach  its  limit  of  elasticity 

only  under  a  heavier  load  than  13.94  tons. 
Estimating  that  iron  plates  reach  this  limit  of 
elasticity  under  a  load  of  10.4  tons  per  sq.  in., 
which  is  rather  above  the  average,  it  will  be 
found  that,  in  construction,  an  iron  plate  of 
thickness  e'  can  be  replaced  by  a  plate  of  thick- 
ness e'  determined  by  the  relation  : — 

22  e'  =  16.5  e,  ore'  =  fy  e. 

This  is  the  case  only  when  the  plates  suffer 
a  direct  tensile  strain.  An  iron  plate  0.47  in. 
thick  can  then  be  replaced  by  a  steel  plate  0.35 
in.  thick. 

At  L'Orient,  all  the  tensile  tests  on  Creusot 
or  Terre-Noire  steel  were  made  with  a  scale 
built  by  M.  Frey,  having  a  range  of  o  to  25 
tons  (fig.  i).  The  test  bars,  a  sketch  of  which  is 
given  in  fig.  2,  were  brought  to  a  uniform  section 
for  a  length  of  more  than  7^  in.  Each  end  was 
wider  than  the  body,  and  these  different  widths 
were  connected  by  easy  curves.  In  the  outline, 
great  care  was  taken  to  avoid  any  angle  in 
which  a  rupture  might  originate.  At  each  end 
holes  were  drilled  allowing  the  bars  to  be  connected  to 
the  jaws  of  the  testing-machine  -by  heavy  pins.  The 
beam  of  the  scale  was  always  kept  horizontal  for  this  purpose, 
the  lower  fixed  point  of  the  bar  was  moved  down  while  the 
stretching  was  taking  place.  The  tensile  strains  were  obtained 


Fig.  2. 

Test  bar. 


22 


THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 


by  loading  successively  one  or  the  other  scale  beam  ;  they 
where  gradually  increased,  44  Ibs.  at  a  time,  leaving  a  certain 
interval  of  time  between  each  increment  of  load  to  give  to 
the  successive  elongations  time  to  develop  themselves. 


To  ascertain  the  limit  of  elongation  a  length  of  7  in.  was 
defined  by  two  centre-punch  holes  ;  on  these  marks  were  fixed 
the  extremities  of  a  small  apparatus  (fig.  3)  ;  this  apparatus  was 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STEEL,  ETC.  23 

frequently  applied,  and  indicated  by  its  graduation  the  suc- 
cessive elongations.  An  observer  followed  the  travel  of  the 
index,  and  noted  after  each  rupture,  the  figure  given  by  the 
instrument,  also  the  load  put  on  the  scales.  These  tests  were 
always  made  by  the  same  men. 


4. — Bessemer. 
Natural  State. 


5-— Martin. 
Natural  Slate. 


6. — Bessemer. 
Tempered. 


7. — Martin. 
Tempered. 


8. — Bessemer. 
Tempered  and  annealed. 


9. — Martin. 
Tempered  and  annealed. 


Besides  these  tests  of  tension,  the  toughness  of  the  metal 
was  frequently  ascertained  by  bending  strips  cut  from  plates 
or  bars ;  this  was  done  by  hammering  only  on  the  extremities 
of  the  specimens  and  never  where  flexion  was  taking  place  ;  the 
bending  was  stopped  when  the  first  crack  appeared  and  the 
results  obtained  were  noted  and  kept  as  a  basis  of  comparison. 
Sometimes  the  bending  was  done  under  a  hydraulic  press,  thus 
allowing  work  without  blows  ;  the  specimens  so  tried  gave  the 
same  curves  as  those  bent  by  the  hammer  under  the  con- 
ditions just  described. 


24  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

The  Steels  from  Creusot  and  Terre-Noire  subjected  to 
these  different  tests  did  not  give  the  same  results;  it  was 
therefore  important  to  repeat  them,  in  order  to  determine  the 
relative  value  of  the  products. 

The  grain  of  the  metal  (as  shown  by  fracture)  indicated  at 
first  sight,  a  slight  difference  ;  in  order  to  examine  it,  nicks 
were  made  in  plates  and  beams  with  a  chisel ;  the  use  of  a 
sledge  was  avoided,  as  it  might  have  altered  the  grain ;  the 
specimens  were  then  broken  as  usual  by  bending.  The  Bes- 
semer metal  showed  a  very  fine  grained  break,  slightly  slate 
colored,  and  approaching  the  fracture  of  steel  proper ;  by  tem- 
pering, the  grain  became  still  finer,  the  color  or  brightness 
not  varying  sensibly.  In  I  beams,  the  grain  was  a  little  more 
steely  than  in  the  plates.  The  Martin  metal  from  Creusot 
gave  a  finer  grained  fracture,  whiter  and  brighter ;  it  ap- 
proached more  by  its  brightness  and  color  the  fracture  of 
fibrous  iron;  tempering  did  not  modify  it  in  a  very  ap- 
preciable manner.  In  every  case  the  grain  evinced  the 
greatest  homogeneity,  at  every  part  of  its  surface. 

Some  strips  were  cut  on  a  planer  from  plates  from  both 
makers ;  the  mean  deformations  (fig.  4)  were  obtained  on  a 
series  of  Bessemer  plates,  and  (fig.  5)  on  a  series  of  Martin 
plates. 

Figs.  6  and  7  give  the  mean  deformations  obtained  after 
tempering,  and  figs.  8  and  9  after  tempering  and  annealing. 
Tempering  was  done  by  heating  the  plates  to  cherry-red  and 
dipping  them  into  water  at  50°  Fahr.  Annealing  was  ob- 
tained by  heating  to  cherry-red.  These  experiments  were 
made  on  specimens  0.31  inch  thick  for  Bessemer  metal  and 
0.35  inch  thick  for  Martin  metal;  the  trial  was  conse- 
quently a  little  harder  for  the  latter. 

Martin  steel  bore  the  bending  test  in  the  natural  state,  a 
little  better  than  Bessemer  steel ;  the  difference  was  slight, 
but  very  decided  after  tempering,  and  we  notice  from  this 
stand-point  a  marked  inferiority  in  the  products  from  Terre- 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STEEL,  ETC.  25 

Noire.     Finally,  after  annealing,  elasticity  was  obviously  re- 
stored to  what  it  was  before  tempering. 

Strips  cut  out  of  I  beams  gave  in  the  natural  state,  the 


10. — Fers  en  H.  n. — Fers  en  H. 

(Flanges,  Natural  State.)  (Web,  Natural  State.) 


12. — Fers  en  H. 
(Flanges  Tempered.) 


average  deformations,  fig.  10,  when  cut  from  the  flange, 
0.53  inch  thick  on  the  average,  and  fig.  1 1  when  cut  from  the 
web,  0.42  inch  thick.  After  tempering,  cracks  were  observed 
when  the  specimens  were  of  the  form  fig.  12  for  the  first,  and 

fig.  13  for  the  others.  The  I  beam 
metal,  chiefly  in  the  region  of  the 
web,  seems  to  experience  by  tem- 
pering an  alteration  in  elasticity 
much  more  prominent  than  that 
observable  in  Bessemer  plates  under  similar  circumstances. 

Two  series  of  tensile  tests  made  on  plates,  angles,  and  I 
beams  gave  the  following  average  results  : 

TABLE  IV. 

UNTEMPERED  STEEL. 


13. — I  beam  Web  Tempered. 


RESISTANCE  TO  RUPTURE 
PER  SQ.  INCH  OF  THE 
ORIGINAL    SECTION. 

PER   CENT.   OF 
STRETCHING. 

Bessemer  Plates  

11    60 

2O   2 

Bessemer  I  Beams  

32.81 

iq   c 

Martin  Plates 

28   69 

24.    I 

Martin  Angles 

20   OO 

21    7 

26 


THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 
TABLE  V. 


RESISTANCE  TO  RUPTURE 
IN  TONS  PER  SQ.  INCH  OF 
THE    ORIGINAL    SECTION. 

PER   CENT     OF 
STRETCHING. 

Lengthwise. 

Crosswise. 

Lengthwise. 

Crosswise. 

Bessemer  Plates  

3°-95 
29.88 

33 
3° 

30-83 
30.07 

•39 
•45 

22.9 
24.2 

21 

24 

21.9 

23-5 
,i 

•5 

Martin  Plates  

Bessemer  I  Beams 

Martin  Angles 

A  few  more  tensile  tests  after  tempering  were  made  at 
L'Orient.  Tempering  was  done  in  the  manner  described  above 
for  the  trial  strips. 

The  result  was  as  follows  : 


TABLE  VI. 


RESISTANCE  TO  RUPTURE 
IN    TONS    PER   SQ.    INCH 
OF  THE  ORIGINAL  SECTION. 

PER    CENT     OF 
STRETCHING. 

Bessemer  Plates  

44-22 

. 

Bessemer  I  Beams  
Martin  Plates  

47.69 
3458 

6.4 

A  few  more  tensile  tests  were  made  after  tempering  and 
annealing.  It  was  observed  that  annealing,  well  done, 
restored  to  the  metal  in  every  case  its  previous  tenacity  and 
elasticity,  as  modified  by  tempering. 

Finally,  by  trying  these  different  products  with  a  file,  it 
was  noticed  that  the  I  beams  were  the  hardest  to  cut ;  then 
came  the  Terre-Noire  plates ;  the  Creusot  plates  and  angles 
were  obviously  softer  than  the  preceding.  After  tempering 
hardness  could  be  classified  in  the  same  order. 

We  may  then  conclude  from  these  different  experiments 
that  the  Terre-Noire  steels  have  more  resistance  to  rupture, 


CLASSIFICA  TION  OF  STEEL, 

more  hardness  and  less  elasticity  than  the  Crei 
they  are  much  more  modified  by  tempering ;  in  short  they 
evince  the  characteristics  of 'more  carburized  iron.  /More- 
over, the  rolled  beams  seem  a  little  more  steely  than  the 
plates  from  the  same  origin.  It  is  hard  to  explain  thisMact^ 
without  knowing  all  the  circumstances  attending  manufacture. 
It  may  be  that  the  plates  undergo  in  the  heating  furnace  a 
more  decided  decarburization  than  the  beams  ;  the  thin  plates 
present  in  the  last  heatings,  with  the  same  volume,  a  larger 
surface  to  the  action  of  flames  that  may  be  slightly  oxydizing. 


SAMUEL  H.  WHEELER, 


SAN    FRANCISCO. 


CHAPTER  III. 

TREATMENT     COMMON   TO    PLATES   AND    ROLLED     BEAMS. 
PUNCHING,    DRILLING,  SHEARING,    HAMMERING,    ETC. 

THE  manipulations  to  which  the  materials  used  in  ship- 
building must  be  subjected  are  very  numerous.  Some  are 
common  to  these  materials  under  whatever  form  they  are 
used.  We  will  examine  first  the  effects  of  the  various 
operations  on  soft  steels,  beginning  with  punching.  We 
will  then  study  the  divers  processes  specially  applicable  to 
plates,  then  to  angles,  and  finally  to  I  beams. 

Punching,  from  experiments  heretofore  made,  is  supposed 
to  alter  notably  the  tenacity  of  steel.  Numerous  experiments 
made  on  this  subject  in  England,  are  mentioned  in  Mr.  Reed's 
work  on  the  construction  of  iron  and  steel  ships.  The  author, 
taking  these  experiments  as  a  basis,  recommends  the  almost 
exclusive  use  of  drilling  ;  he,  however,  indicates  several 
ways  to  lessen  the  alteration  produced  by  punching,  such  as 
annealing,  and  the  use  of  dies  of  a  larger  diameter  than  the 
punch. 

The  tensile  tests  made  at  L'Orient  on  punched  Terre-Noire 
plates  proved  from  the  start  that,  with  the  adopted  mode  of 
experimentation,  the  width  of  the  trial  bars  exerted  a  great 
influence  on  the  tenacity.  The  following  results  were  obtained 
from  Terre-Noire  plates  0.27  in.  thick  •  the  test-pieces  were 
punched  in  the  middle,  the  hole  being  0.66  in.  and  the  die 
0.76  in.  for  some,  and  0.82  in.  for  others.  In  the  first  case* 
the  holes  were  cylindrical,  and  in  the  second  conical. 


TREATMENT  OF  PLATES,  ETC. 
TABLE  VII. 


29 


RESISTANCE   TO    RUPTURE    PER   SQUARE   INCH. 

WIDTH 

Cylindrical  Punching. 

Conical  Punching. 

OK    THE 

SPECIMENS. 

•-' 

In  the  direction 
of  fibres. 

Across  fibres. 

[n  the  direction 
of  fibres. 

Across  fibres. 

in. 

tons. 

tons. 

1.24 

27.00 

26.96 

3T-73 

32  17 

T-95 

25.89 

26.33 

28.23 

27.47 

2.65 

25-25 

23.54 

26.27 

24.23 

3-35 

22.65 

23-54 

22.31 

24.23 

4.05 

24.23 

23-54 

22.91 

24-23 

4-75 

23.09 

23-54 

23-73 

24.23 

From  this  table,  we  first  observe  that  the  resistance  in  the 
direction  of  the  fibres  and  across  them  is  sensibly  the  same. 
This  is  also  shown  by  a  great  number 
of  tensile  tests  made  at  the  Works  and 
indicated  in  the  preceding  chapter. 
Stretching  is  also  the  same  in  both 
cases.  In  the  following  statement,  we 
will  make  no  distinction  between  length- 
wise and  crosswise  resistances.  All 
the  trial  strips  hereafter  referred  to 
were  tested  in  the  direction  of  the 
length  of  the  plate. 

The  results  noted  in  the  preceding 
table  imply  a  decided  apparent  altera- 
tion clue  to  punching.  In  the  widest 
strips  resistance  to  rupture  seems  to  be 
reduced  30  per  cent. 

We  further  remark : 

i  st.    That  tenacity,  seems  to  diminish  in  both  varieties  of 
punching  as  the  width  of  the  strips  increases. 

2cl.    That  conical  punching  does  not  seem  to  affect  sensibly 


Scale 
14. — Form  of  Fracture. 


3° 


THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 


the  narrow  strips,  while  cylindrical  punching  always  affects 
them  in  a  notable  manner. 

3d.  That  the  effect  of  both 
modes  of  punching  seems  to  be 
the  same  on  wider  strips. 

The  alteration  due  to  punch- 
ing cannot  then  affect  the  tenacity 
of  the  metal,  for  the  narrowest 
specimens  ought  to  resist  the 
least ;  these  results  however  may 
be  attributed  to  alteration  in 
elasticity.  This  explanation  seems 
all  the  more  plausible  as,  in  the 
wide  specimens  the  form  of  the 
fracture  (fig.  14)  proves  that  the 
central  fibres  stretched  less  than 
the  others,  and  indicates  a  rupture 
beginning  at  the  centre. 

We  were  then  led  to  investi- 
gate whether  the  elasticity  of  the 
fibres  around  the  hole  was  altered, 
and  if  so,  what  the  extent  of  this 
altered  zone  was.  For  this  pur- 
pose, 4  series  of  strips  (fig.  15) 
were  traced  on  a  Terre-Noire 
plate. 

Between  two  series,  cylindrical 
holes  were  punched  (0.66  in. 
punch  and  0.70  in.  die),  and  be- 
tween two  others,  conical  holes 
(o.  66  in.  punch  and  0.80  in.  die)  ; 


J 


o 


Fig.  is- 


these  holes  were  about  as  far  apart  as  needed  for  a  water-tight 
joint.  In  each  series,  4  test  strips  were  cut  as  per  outline  of 
figure,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  parallel  to  the  line  of  holes, 
and  at  different  distances  from  the  holes. 


TREA  TMENT  OF  PL  A  TES,  ETC. 
TABLE  VIII. 


MARKS 

RESISTANCE   TO  RUPTURE  PER 
SQUARE   INCH    OF    ORIGINAL 

PER  CENT.   LINE   OF   STRETCH- 

SPECI- 

SECTION. 

ING. 

Cylindrical. 

Conical. 

Cylindrical. 

Conical. 

tons. 

tons. 

A         I 

3I-54 

30-57 

21.5 

19.0 

\ 

31.48 

3I-89 

21.5 

22.0 

R         1 

30.70 

31.02 

22.0 

21.5 

B.        j 

30.89 

30.89 

20.0 

22    0 

C 

30.70 

30.70 

22.0 

21  .O 

C.        j 

30.70 

30.89 

2O.  O 

21  .O 

D         i 

3i-32 

31  .16 

2O.  O 

2O.  O 

i 

30.89 

3J-73 

22.  0 

20.5 

These  experiments  prove  that  neither  stretching  nor 
tenacity  were  altered  in  the  parts  subjected  to  stress.  It 
might  have  happened,  however  that  the  alteration  in  elas- 
ticity, taking  place  in  a  region  concentric  to  each  hole  and 
reaching  but  slightly  into  the  bars  B  or  C,  was  not  notably 
perceptible  in  the  preceding  trial.  It  was  attempted  to  pro- 
duce in  new  specimens  from  the  same  plate,  an  alteration  as 
complete  as  possible,  by  cutting  them  on  the  edge  with  a 
square  punch.  After  punching,  from  0.058  to  0.078  in.  were 
taken  off  with  a  file  on  each  side,  so  as  to  make  the  edges 
straight.  These  strips  being  broken,  gave  a  mean  resistance 
of  30.45  tons  per  sq.  in.  and  a  mean  stretching  of  21.2  per 
cent.  It  thus  became  evident  that  the  alteration  in  elasticity, 
if  it  exists,  is  felt  sensibly  only  in  the  region  about  0.058  inch 
wide  surrounding  the  punch  holes,  and  not  made  manifest  in 
the  preceding  trials. 

Experiments  as  to  deformation  by  bending,  proved  that 
elasticity  was  decidedly  altered  in  this  region.  Specimens  of 
Bessemer  plate  being  sheared  on  one  side  and  cut  out  with 
punch  holes  on  the  other,  attained  the  deformation  shown  in 
fig.  1 6.  Cracks  always  showed  themselves  on  the  edges, 
especially  on  the  punched  edge ;  never  in  the  middle.  By 


THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 


comparing  this  bending  with  that  obtained  on  planed  Besse- 
mer plates  (Fig.  4.)  it  will  be  seen  that  the  effect  of  punching 
is  to  lessen  the  elasticity  of 
the  metal  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  point  where  it 
is  applied. 

This  altered  region 
ought  not,  from  the  pre- 
ceding experiments,  to  have 
extended  further  than  0.058 
inch  from  the  edges.  The 
question  whether  the  re- 
moval of  the  part  immediately  surrounded  by  the  punch  hole 
removed  the  cause  of  these  defects,  was  investigated.  New 
specimens  were  taken  from  a  Terre-Noire  plate  and  punched 
with  a  0.66  in.  cylindrical  hole  and  0.70  in.  die,  this  hole  was 
enlarged  with  a  drill,  so  as  to  take  away  a  ring  of  metal  0.039, 
0.078  and  0.0117.  inch  thick,  thus  giving  holes  0.738,  0.816  and 
0.894  inch  in  diameter.  By  breaking  them  the  following 
results  were  found : 

TABLE  IX. 


16. — Bessemer  (Natural  state). 


WIDTH    OF   THE 
SPECIMEN. 

FINAL  DIAMETER  OF  THE 
HOLES. 

RESISTANCE   TO  RUPTURE  PER 
SQUARE   INCH  OF  ORIGINAL 
SECTION. 

in. 

in. 

tons. 

J-95 

0.738 

32.23 

1  .95 

0.816 

3I-85 

i-95 

0.894 

32.30 

Thus,  specimens  of  the  same  width  (1.95  in.)  gave  a  re 
sistance  of  25.88  tons  with  0.66  in.  punched  hole  (see  table 
VII.)  and  more  than  32  tons  with  the  same  hole  enlarged  by 
0.078  in.  The  removal  of  this  annular  ring  of  metal  0.039  mc^ 
wide,  surrounding  the  hole,  thus  removes  the  space  of  weak- 
ening due  to  punching. 


TREATMENT  OF  PLATES,  ETC. 


33 


This  experiment,  being  very  important,  was  repeated  first 
with  0.31  inch  plate.  In  the  same  Terre-Noire  plate,  strips 
2.34111.  wide  were  cut  out  and  cylindrical  holes,  0.70  inch  in 
diam.  were  made ;  some  of  these  holes  were  bored ;  others 
were  punched  0.63  inch  wide  and  enlarged  to  0.70  in.  by  bor- 
ing. In  both  cases  specimens  apparently  identical  were  ob- 
tained in  the  end.  The  average  resistances  to  rupture  were 
thus  :  drilled  hole  31.22  tons  per  sq.  in.  punched  and  drilled 
hole  30.20  tons  per.  sq.  in. 

Other  specimens  taken  from  thicker  Terre-Noire-plate,  (0.46 
in.)  gave  the  followinig  average  results  : 

TABLE  X. 


WIDTH    OF 
SPECIMEN. 

RESISTANCE  TO  RUPTURE 
PER   SQUARE    INCH    OF 
ORIGINAL  SECTION. 

Drilled  holes  

in. 
o  66 

in. 

tons. 

•34.6? 

Punched  "    

o  66 

•  7s 

27.78 

a          a 

o  58 

,7C 

I 

Enlarged  to 

o  66 

7; 

j                 34-02 

Punched 

o  50 

7* 

) 

Enlarged  to 

o  66 

7^ 

33-51 

It  is  therefore  thoroughly  demonstrated  that  plates  from 
0.27  in.  to  0.46  in.  thick  escape  the  injurious  action  of  the 
punch  by  the  removal  of  an  annular  ring  0.039  in.  thick,  sur- 
rounding the  holes. 

It  was  interesting  to  specially  examine  this  region  around 


the  holes.     In  one  end,  holes  of  the  same  diameter  were  put 


34 


THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 


through  some  Terre-Noire  plates  0.31  and  0.46  in.  thick — some 
drilled,  and  others  punched  and  enlarged  by  0.078  in.  The 
part  outside  of  the  region  referred  to  was  then  taken  away, 
and  by  proceeding  cautiously  in  the  lathe,  rings  about  0.190 
in.  thick  were  obtained  (fig.  1 7).  By  trying  to  flatten  these 
rings,  very  different  results  were  observed.  The  rings  with 

Full  Size. 


18.— Drilled  hole. 


19. — Drilled  hole.     20. — Punched  and  reamed  hole. 


drilled  holes  were  completely  flattened  under  the  hammer 
without  any  cracks  (fig.  18) ;  in  trying  to  bring  them  back  to 
their  original  form,  a  crack  showed  itself  at  each  extremity 
(fig.  19).  The  rings  with  reamed  punched  holes  stood  the 


Full  Size. 


21.— Punched  and  reamed  hole.        22.— Punched  hole.        23.— Punched  hole. 

same   test  as  well;   (fig.  20);  the  first  crack  showed  itself 
when,  in  opening  the  ring,  the  form  fig.  21  was  reached. 

In  the  light  of  this  experiment,  the  rings  obtained  either  way 
were  in  the  same  physical  condition.  As  to  rings  with  punched 
holes  not  reamed,  it  was  necessary  to  exert  a  greater  effort 
than  on  the  others  to  begin  the  flattening ;  they  would  sus- 
tain an  insignificant  deformation  only,  and  traces  of  cracks 
showed  themselves  immediately  (fig.  22).  Figures  23,  24  and 
25  represent  some  of  these  rings  after  complete  rupture  ;  it 
will  be  observed  that  each  of  these  fragments  preserves  the 
form  of  an  arc  of  the  original  circle.  It  was  observed  that 


TREATMENT  OF  PLATES,  ETC.  35 

these  last  rings  were  harder  to  cut  with  a  file  than  the  first 
ones,  and  that  they  slightly  scratched  the  plate  to  which  they 
had  belonged  ;  the  rings  obtained  by  drilling  or  by  reaming 


Full  Size. 


24.— Punched  hole.  25.— Punched  hole. 

punched  holes  did  not  produce  this  effect.  The  punchings 
behaved  under  the  file,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  metal  sur- 
rounding them. 

Rings  made  with  punched  holes  were  heated  in  a  gas 
furnace  to  cherry-red  ;  they  were  allowed  to  cool  without  dis- 
turbance, and  were  submitted  to  the  same  test  of  deformation  ; 
every  one  was  completely  flattened  (fig.  26) ;  cracks  only 
showed  themselves,  when  after  flattening,  they  were  brought 
back  to  form  fig.  27.  Other  rings,  heated  in  the  same  man- 

Full  Size. 


26.— Punched  hole  27.— Punched  hole  28.— Punched  hole 

annealed.  annealed.  annealed  developed. 

ner,  cut  on  a  generating  line,  were  completely  developed  and 
bent  again  so  as  to  cause  the  interior  of  the  ring  to  extend ; 
they  were  then  flattened  as  in  fig.  28  without  any  perceptible 
crack.  In  pressing  the  deformation  further,  cracks  appeared. 
This  last  experiment  shows  conclusively  that  the  punch  by 
its  action,  does  not  produce  any  kind  of  crack  on  the  edges  of 
the  hole.  Some  authors  have  adopted  the  hypothesis  of 
incipient  cracking,  to  explain  the  feeble  resistance  observed 
in  punched  plates. 

The  Martin  plates  from  Creusot  were  effected  by  punching 
in  about  the  same   manner  as  Bessemer  plates.     Strips  of 


36  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

Martin  steel  having  one  edge  cut  by  shearing  and  the  other  by 
punching,  were  submitted  to  trials  of  deformation.  They  be- 
gan to  show  traces  of  cracks  when  they  had  reached  forms 
the  average  of  which  is  represented  in  fig.  29.  The  cracks 


Fig.  29 
Natural  State. 

were  seen  about  at  the  same  time  on  each  ,eclge :  the  strips  of 
Martin  plate  were  0.35  in.  thick  •  the  Bessemer  strips  were 
only  0.31  in.  thick;  taking  this  difference  of  thickness  into 
account,  it  appears  that  shearing  and  punching  act  about  sim- 
ilarly on  both  kinds  of  plates.  Strips  of  Martin  steel  2.34  in. 
wide  with  a  punched  hole  in  the  middle,  broken  in  the  testing 
machine,  gave  a  mean  resistance  of  21.89  t°ns  Per  square  in. 
Strips  of  the  same  plate  of  the  same  width,  with  drilled  holes 
in  the  centre  gave  a  resistance  of  27.59  tons. 

It  was  shown  in  one  of  the  above  tables,  that  Bessemer 
metal  specimens  of  the  same  width,  gave  a  resistance  of  about 
25.38  tons.  Other  specimens  of  the  same  Bessemer  plate  2.34 
in.  wide,  gave  25.44  tons  with  a  punched  hole,  and  32.52  tons 
with  a  drilled  one. 

From  these  figures,  on  a  width  2.34  in.,  the  apparent  loss 
of  tenacity  is  then  21  per  cent,  for  Martin  metal  and  22  per 
cent,  for  Bessemer  metal ;  it  may  be  assumed  that  they  are 
sensibly  the  same. 

By  cutting  away  in  the  lathe,  the  ring  surrounding  holes 


TREATMENT  OF  PLATES,  ETC. 


37 


punched  in  Martin  plate,  and  trying  to  distort  these  rings,  the 
metal  was  found  about  as  brittle  as  the  Bessemer  rings. 


30. — Bessemer  (tempered). 

Tempering  has  a  somewhat  remarkable  influence,  when 
applied  to  punched  steels.  It  was  first  observed  on  strips 
cut,  like  the  preceding  ones,  from  Terre-Noire  and  Creusot 
plates.  One  edge  was  punched  and  the  other  sheared. 
These  strips  heated  to  cherry-red,  tempered  in  cold  water 
and  submitted  to  tests  for  deformation  showed  their  first 


31. — Martin  (tempered). 


cracks  when  they  had  reached  the  average  form  fig.  30  for 
Bessemer  plate,  and  fig,  31  for  Martin  plate. 

The  cracks  occurred  in  the  center  as  often  as  on  the  punch- 
ed and  sheared  edges.     If  we  compare   these  deformations 


THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 


with  those  obtained  after  tempering,  on  planed  strips  of  the 
same  steel,  represented  by  figs.  6  and  7,  very  slight  differ- 
ences are  observable  between  classes  of  the  same  plate. 

Tests,  after  tempering,  were  also  made  on  2.34  in.  strips 
cut  out  of  Bessemer  and  Martin  plates  having  in  their  center 
a  0.66  in.  hole,  sometimes  drilled,  sometimes  punched.  These 
strips  broken  in  the  testing  machine  evinced  resistance 
averaging  as  follows  : — 

TABLE  I. 


RESISTANCE   TO    RUPTURE    PER   SQUARE 
INCH. 

Bessemer. 

Martin. 

Drilled  hole  

tons. 

44-54  . 
43-27 

tonsu 

34.46 
33-39 

Punched  " 

It  may  be  then  assumed  that  tempering  sheared  and  punch- 
ed steels  to  the  same  degree,  brings  them  back  to  the  same 
state  as  if  their  edges  had  been  planed  and  their  holes  drilled. 

Judging  from  the  experiment  of  annealing  made  on  rings 
surrounding  punched  holes,  annealing  must  produce  a  great 
improvement  on  the  apparent  resistance  of  punched  plates. 
This  result,  pointed  out  by  several  authors  was  verified  with 
Bessemer  steel  specimens  1.95  in.  wide.  These,  after  anneal- 
ing gave  the  following  average  resistances. 

TABLE  XII. 


RESISTANCE   PER 
SQUARE   INCH. 

Punched  and  annealed  

tons. 

2Q.  SO 

Drilled           " 

T.Q  .01 

id.^2 

TREA  TMENT  OF  PLA  TES,  ETC.  39 

Specimens  from  the  same  plate,  punched  without  anneal- 
ing, gave  a  resistance  of  24.49  tons-  Annealing  then,  brings 
back  the  steel  to  the  same  state  as  if  it  had  been  drilled  and 
planed  instead  of  being  punched. 

Strips  of  Bessemer  and  Martin  plate  were  also  cut  out 
with  the  shears  and  punched  and  successively  submitted  to 


f    32. — Bessemer  (tempered  and  annealed).  33- — Martin  (tempered  and  annealed). 

tempering  and  annealing.  By  trying  to  bend  them  after  the 
operation,  they  were  brought  to  the  forms  fig.  32  for  Bessemer 
plate  and  fig.  33  for  Martin  plate. 

Strips  of  both  kinds,  some  with  punched  holes,  others 
with  drilled  holes,  having  been  submitted  to  this  double  op- 
eration of  tempering  and  annealing  gave  the  following  results. 

TABLE  XIII. 


RESISTANCE   PER  SQUARE   INCH. 


Bessemer. 

Martin. 

Drilled  hole  

tons. 

^O  .  17 

tons. 
26.  vi 

Punched  "  .    . 

•jr    e-j 

^O.T.2 

It  is  probable  that  the  annealing  of  these  last  specimens  did 
not  take  place  at  a  sufficiently  high  heat  to  cause  the  disap- 
pearance of  all  the  tempering  obtained  in  the  first  operation. 

By  summing  up  the  preceding  pages,  we  may   conclude 


40  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

from  these  experiments  made  with  plates  from  o.  27  to  0.46, 
inches  thick : — 

i  st.  That  the  effects  of  punching  and  shearing  are  essenti- 
ally local  and  spread  only  over  a  very  restricted  region,  less 
than  0.039  in.  on  the  edges  of  the  sheared  or  punched  parts. 

2d.  That  no  cracks  exist  in  this  altered  region  ; 

3d.  That  tempering  destroys  the  effects  of  shearing  and 
punching  by  bringing  the  metal  back  to  the  state  it  would  be 
in  if  drilling  or  planing  had  been  substituted  for  punching  or 
shearing : 

4th.  That  annealing  alone  or  after  tempering  destroys  as 
tempering  alone  does,  the  alterations  caused  by  shearing 
and  punching. 

These  different  results  are  easily  explained  by  the  consid- 
erations previously  explained.  The  shears  or  punch  produce 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  parts  submitted  to  their  action  a 
very  intense  local  pressure.  On  one  hand  the  limit  of 
elasticity  in  the  metal  is  exceeded  ;  it  cannot  then  bear  the 
same  stretching,  but  this  effect  alone  does  not  explain  the 
observed  increase  in  hardness  and  tenacity.  On  the  other 
hand  this  pressure  causes  a  solution  of  the  mechanically  mix- 
ed carbon  and  effects  a  real  tempering  in  the  parts  touched  by 
the  shears  around  the  punch  holes  and  on  the  circumference 
of  the  punchings.  These  affected  parts  acquire  more  hard- 
ness and  tenacity,  and  are  capable  of  slight  stretching  only. 
Tempering  thus  obtained  is  much  more  intense  than  that  ob- 
tained by  rapid  cooling.  In  reality  the  pressure  of  the  punch 
is  sufficient  to  exceed  the  limit  of  resistance  of  the  metal  and 
this  effect  can  never  be  produced  by  tempering  soft  steels  by 
simple  cooling  ;  in  the  latter  case  the  pressure  and  the  effects 
produced  by  it  are  necessarily  less.  Thus  a  ring  surrounding 
a  drilled  hole  and  tempered  by  the  most  rapid  cooling  obtain- 
able gave  the  deformation  fig  34,  very  different  from  that  ob- 
tained with  rings  surrounding  punched  holes  in  the  same 
plates. 


TREA  TMENT  OF  PLA  TES,  ETC. 


34. — Bessemer,  drilled 
tempered. 


•C 

—^               • 

A 

_ 

By  admitting  this  theory,  we  can  ac- 
count for  the  different  facts  observed* 
and  first  the  influence  of  the  width  of 
the  specimens  on  their  tenacity,  as  shown 
in  Table  VII. 
Let  us  suppose  the  region  of  action  of 

the  punch  to  be  limited  to  a  cylinder  the 

radius  of  which  would  be  0.039  in.  larger 

than  that  of    this    punch.      The    different 

fibres    of     a     test-bar     will    stretch     until 

the   central    part  tempered   and    near   the 

hole,     stretching     less,    and    consequently 

bearing    the     main    part    of     the    charge, 

will  break   in  a   crack   0.039  l°n&'     From 

this  moment,  all  the  fibres,  working  equal- 
ly,   should    show   the    normal    tenacity   of 

steel  plates  provided  the  crack  had  no  great 

tendency  to  spread.     This  effect   was  pro- 
duced in  the  narrow  bands,  1.24  in.  wide; 

they  were  held  at  their  extremities  by  a  bolt 

running   through    the    holes   AA'  BB'  and 

about  1.17  in.  diam.  (fig.  35).      The  effort 

of  tension  tended  to  a  transmission  follow- 
ing the   tangents  AB  A'B'  at  the  edges  of 

the  two   holes,    and  the   fibres   were  more 

strained  as    they    neared   these  lines.      It 

was  then  at  the  edges  that  the  maximum 

stretching  was  to  take  place ;   the   cracks 

could  show  themselves  only  under  a  pretty 

heavy  effort,  and  had  very  little  tendency 

to  spread.     The  crack  once  produced  on  the 

whole   extent   of   the   altered    region,    the 

working  section  of  a  band  with  cylindrical 

punching  (0.66  in.  punch,  0.70  die)  will  be 

0.1401,  sq.  in.     Admitting  31.30  tons  to  be 


o 


42 


THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 


nominal  resistance  of  Bessemer  plates,  these  bands 
will  break  under  a  load  of  9827 
Ibs.  which  will  give  as  an  ap- 
parent resistance,  27.85  tons 
per  sq.  inch:  that  is  to  say, 
the  result  observed  in  Table 

36.— Full  Size.  VII. 

In  the  conical  punched  hole,  the  metal 
is  a  little  less  altered  than  by  the  cylindrical 
punching;  rings  detached  around  these  holes 
have  been  deformed  only  slightly,  it  is  true, 
but  yet  quite  perceptibly  (fig.  36).  This  result 
is  explained  by  the  weaker  tempering  produced 
by  this  mode  of  punching;  it  is  well  known 
that,  in  this  case,  it  takes  a  less  effort  to  open 
a  hole  in  a  plate  than  for  cylindrical  punching, 
and  in  fact,  under  the  action  of  the  punch,  in 
the  first  case  the  metal  is  submitted  to  flexure 
as  well  as  to  the  shearing  proper  as  effected  by 
cylindrical  punching.  In  the  trial  strips  stretch- 
ing is  a  little  more  regular ;  the  cracks  do 
not  show  themselves  as  quickly,  and  the  final 
resistance  per  sq.  in.  differs  but  little  from  that 
of  the  drilled  strips. 

In  order  to  properly  show  the  influence  of  the 
position  of  the  punched  hole  with  regard  to  the 
tangents  AB  A'B'  strips  1.24  in.  wide  were  cut 
out  of  a  Bessemer  plate  according  to  the  pattern 
fig.  37  ;  some  ha.d  drilled  holes,  others  conical 
punched  holes  ;  and  the  last  ones  a  cylindrical 
punched  hole.  The  centre  of  the  hole  was  in 
every  case  on  the  line  A'B'  and  the  altered 
region  was  then  the  one  subjected  to  the  great- 
er stress.  These  specimens  gave  the  following 
results : —  ri&-  37- 


O 


TREA  TMENT  OF  PL  A  TES,  ETC.  43 

TABLE  XIV. 


RESISTANCE   PER 
SQUARE  INCH. 

Drilled  holes  

tons. 
20.06 

Cylindrical  punched  holes  

i;.o8 

Conical            "            "    

21.  ?S 

These  results  should  not  be  compared  with  those  pre- 
viously obtained  ;  because  tension  in  this  case,  is  complica- 
ted by  flexure  ;  however,  this  experiment  shows  very  well 
the  influence  of  the  altered  region  in  a  specimen  of  this  kind  ; 
it  shows  also  that  conical  punching  has  a  considerable  effect 
on  small  strips,  although  less  harmful  than  cylindrical 
punching;  .and  that  the  mode  of  suspension  of  the  test 
plates  alone,  has  prevented  many  experimentors  from  no- 
ticing it. 

The  decrease  in  tenacity  after  punching,  which  seems 
more  considerable  in  very  wide  plates  is  easily  explained.  In 
this  case,  the  outside  fibres  furthest  from  the  punched  hole 
are  the  least  loaded ;  in  the  neighborhood  of  this  hole  the 
greatest  tension  occurs  and  at  a  certain  moment  the  cracks 
produced  in  the  altered  region  spread  till  final  rupture.  It 
will  be  also  understood  why  in  two  strips  both  wide,  but  of 
unequal  width  only  a  small  difference  is  found  between  their 
resistance  to  rupture  per  sq.  inch  on  account  of  the  cracks 
spreading  when  the  loads  on  the  central  parts  are  the 
same. 

For  strips  of  average  width,  intermediate  results  must  also 
be  observed ;  the  difference  between  the  two  modes  of 
punching  becoming  less  and  less  when  the  width  of  the 
specimens  is  increased. 

Where  none  of  these  incipient  cracks  are  produced, 
specimens  whether  drilled  or  punched  and  reamed,  can  bear  a 


44 


THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 


much  greater  load  per  square  in.  whatever  their  width  maybe  ; 
they  should  resist  the  less  per  sq  in.  as  they  grow  wider ; 
experience  seems  to  prove  this. 

When  making  tensile  tests,  the  mode  of  fixing  the  specimens, 
and  their  width,  must  be  taken  into  careful  consideration,  in 
order  to  secure  comparable  results. 

In  practice,  when  plate-joints  riveted  more  or  less  close, 
are  to  be  frequently  submitted  to  extension  and  compression, 
the  punched  plates  will  suffer  a  decrease  of  resistance  in  the 
same  degree  as  the  large  strips  in  the  preceding  trials,  for 
the  most  considerable  stresses  will  always  occur  in  the  regions 
surrounding  each  rivet. 

It  is  to  be  supposed  that  the  phenomena  stated  above, 
occur  whenever  any  metal  is  punched,  but  to  a  degree  depending 
upon  the  manner  in  which  it  behaves  under  the  punch.  The 
greater  or  less  enlargement  of  the  hole  by  drilling  will  be 
sufficient  to  remove  the  cause  of  alteration.  It  was  determined 
to  prove  this  with  reference  to  iron  plates,  and  in  order  to  do 
so,  an  experiment  was  made  to  determine  the  influence  of  the 
widths  of  the  specimens  on  their  resistance  to  rupture. 


TABLE  XV. 


WIDTH    OF 
SPECIMEN. 

RESISTANCE  TO  RUPTURE 
PER   SQUARE   INCH. 

in. 

tons. 

Without  punching 

0.78 

17.82 

0.87 

17.64 

1.24 

16.81 

Conical  punched  hole  —  0.66  inch 
punch  and  0.81  inch  die  

J-25 

2.62 

3-35 

16.69 
15.10 
14.72 

4.05 

14.79 

A  second  experiment  was  made  to  determine  whether  an 
enlargement  by  drilling,  of  a  punched  hole,  was  sufficient  to 
restore  to  the  metal  its  apparent  previous  tenacity;  the 
specimens  were  2.34  in.  wide — 


TREA  TMENT  OF  PL  A  TES,  ETC.  45 

TABLE  XVI. 


RESISTANCE    PER   SQUARE 
INCH. 

Drill  -d  hole 

in. 
0.74 

tons. 

16.94 

O    74. 

14   85 

it            u 

U                 l( 

o  .  66  inch  enlarged  to  .... 
0.58     "            " 

0.74 
0.74 

15.86 
I7.2O 

From  these  few  figures  we  observe  that  punching  has  on  iron 
plates  an  effect  similar  to  that  it  has  on  steel  plates  ;  the  ex- 
tent of  the  altered  region  seems  a  little  larger ;  the  apparent 
loss  would  be,  judging  from  this  last  table,  about  12  per  cent. 

Rings  cut  out  around  holes  punched  in  iron  plates  withstood 
bending  like  the  steel  rings  previously  mentioned  ;  while  rings 
cut  around  drilled  holes  were  capable,  before  breaking,  of  con- 
siderable deformation  ;  those  from  punched  holes  were  broken 
before  their  figure  had  been  notably  changed.  These  last 
rings  annealed  to  cherry-red  were  bent  like  those  surrounding 
drilled  holes. 

These  effects  in  steel  can  be  explained  by  a  permanent 
alteration  of  the  elasticity  in  the  parts  close  to  the  punched 
hole,  and  also  by  a  solution  in  the  iron,  under  the  influence  of 
pressure,  of  foreign  matters,  and  especially  carbon,  traces  of 
which  it  always  contains. 

It  has  been  observed  that  punched  and  sheared  specimens 
when  brought  under  the  action  of  tempering,  lose  the  harm- 
ful effects  of  the  punch  or  shears,  and  behave  like  drilled  and 
planed  plates  subjected  to  tempering.  This  fact  is  explained 
by  considerations  like  the  preceding  ones.  The  shears  and 
punch  tempering  the  metal  around  the  points  where  they  act, 
the  specimens  so  altered  have  no  longer  their  previous  homo- 
geneity, and  under  a  relatively  slight  deformation  incipient 
breaking  shows  itself  ;  the  test  pieces  cut  with  the  shears  and 
punch  always  crack  on  the  edges,  the  central  part  never  show- 
ing any  trace  of  alteration.  When,  on  the  contrary,  these 
locally  altered  specimens  are  heated  and  tempered,  the  parts 


46  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

previously  tempered  by  the  shears  and  punch  are  brought  back 
by  a  high  temperature  to  the  same  state  as  the  centre  ; 
the  same  quantity  of  carbon  is  dissolved  at  every  point ; 
the  lost  elasticity  is  restored,  and  finally,  homogeneity  is  pre- 
served, just  as  if  the  specimen  had  been  cut  in  a  planer  or  by 
drilled  holes  and  then  tempered.  Cracks  then  show  themselves 
in  the  centre  as  well  as  on  the  edge.  In  the  test  pieces  sub- 
jected to  tension  the  same  fact  is  repeated ;  specimens 
punched  and  tempered  bear  the  same  load  as  the  drilled  and 
tempered  ones. 

It  is,  as  we  may  perceive,  the  action  of  heat,  and  not  that 
of  tempering,  which  re-establishes  homogeneity ;  thus  annealing 
gives  the  same  results. 

In  consequence  of  the  facts  just  enumerated,  in  order  to 
maintain  in  steel  plates  and  bars  their  entire  value,  shearing 
and  punching  should  be  avoided  unless  the  parts  are  sub- 
sequently annealed  or  unless  the  region  altered  by  the  action 
of  the  tools  is  cut  out.  Laying  aside,  for  the  present,  the  pro- 
priety of  annealing,  which  we  will  subsequently  consider,  it 
will  be  seen  that  sheared  and  punched  edges  must  be  planed  or 
chiselled,  and  the  making  of  holes  must  be  effected  directly  by 
drilling  or  by  punching  and  subsequent  enlargement  of  the 
hole  by  reaming  or  boring. 

Sheared  plates  can  be  easily  planed  when  their  outline  is 
straight  or  nearly  so.  Otherwise  they  must  be  chiselled  ;  this 
is  often  done  on  iron  plates  when  they  must  be  put  together 
carefully  and  caulked ;  in  many  cases  it  would  not  require 
any  extra  work.  Angle  iron  should  be  treated  in  the  same 
manner  ;  but,  this  operation  can  frequently  be  dispensed  with, 
as  the  end  of  the  bar  brought  under  the  shears  has  but  little 
to  do  as  far  as  resistance  is  concerned. 

There  are  difficulties  about  punching  long  since  recog- 
nized ;  the  main  one  being  the  mistakes  made  in  the  position 
of  the  holes.  With  careful  and  practiced  workmen,  this  em- 
barrassment is  greatly  decreased. 


TREATMENT  OF  PLATES,  ETC. 


47 


In  the  work  done  in  building  ships  at  L'Orient,  where  a 
special  effort  was  made  to  avoid  them,  a  very  small  number 
of  holes  had  to  be  corrected,  hardly  i  in  50.  This  correcting 
was  done  with  a  rat-tail  file  or  with  a  gouge,  instead  of  the 
customary  drift,  which  has  for  steel  plates,  the  same  damaging 
effects  as  hammering ;  these  effects  will  be  subsequently 
shown. 

Punching  also  slightly  deforms  the  plate  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  hole ;  the  greater  portion  of  the  bulged  part  is 
removed  when  the  hole  is  enlarged  with  a  drill,  and,  in  any 
case,  a  slight  hammering,  or  better  still,  a  few  passes  on  a 
planer  are  sufficient  to  straighten  the  edges  of  the  holes. 

With  thin  rolled  bars,  the  deformation  caused  by  punching 
is  more  important,  and  making  holes  in  any  other  way  than 
drilling  has  been  given  up.  When  such  plates  are  very  thick, 
deformation  is  slight.  It  has  been  ascertained  on  I  beams 
the  webs  of  which  were  punched,  that  after  the  holes  were 
reamed  no  trace  of  bulging  appeared  on  the  edges  of  the 
holes. 

On  account  of  these  chief 
defects  of  punching  which 
can  be  diminished  but  not 
wholly  suppressed,  drilling, 
which  has  none  of  them, 
must  be  substituted,  when 
it  can  be  done  economic- 
ally, and  the  available  tools 
will  allow  it. 


38.- Full  Size. 


39.— Full  Size. 


In  order  to  arrive  at  an  exact  determination  of  the  work  ne- 
cessary to  bore  holes  in  steel  plates  with  or  without  punching, 
10  plates  0.31  in.  thick,  and  of  great  dimensions  (each  one 
weighing  600  Ibs.  about)  were  taken.  These  plates,  symmetri- 
cal and  in  pairs,  were  to  have  the  same  number  of  holes  • 
one  series  of  5  plates  was  drilled,  the  other  series  was  punched 
and  the  holes  enlarged  ;  fig.  38  represents  the  punched  holes 


48 


THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 


and  fig.  39  the  holes  enlarged  with  a  drill.     The  following  re- 
sults were  obtained : — 


TABLE  XVII. 

DRILLED   PLATES. 


& 

NUMBER  OF  WORKING 

OBSERVATIONS. 

NUMBER 

HOURS. 

»     [!,     W 

S      O      Q 

PLATES. 

Machine. 

Workman. 

hours. 

hours. 

I 

296 

18.30 

18.30 

!  Holes  near  together.     Curvilinear 

out- 

2 

226 

J5-3° 

15  .30 

line. 

3 

no 

9.0 

9.0 

Holes  far  apart.     Rectangular  plates. 

4 

5 

152 

11.30 

II.  0 

ii  .30 

II.  0 

|  Holes  near  together.  Rectangular  plates. 

Total.. 

915 

TABLE  XVIII. 

PUNCHED   PLATES  AND   ENLARGED   HOLES. 


NUMBER  OF  WORKING  HOURS    OF  NUMBER   OF    WORKING    HOUR' 


NUMBER 
OF   THE 
PLATES. 

MACHINES. 

ONE   WORKMAN. 

Punch. 

Drill. 

Total. 

Punching. 

Reaming. 

Total. 

hours. 

hours. 

hours. 

hours. 

hours. 

hours. 

2 

3 
4 
5 

Total... 

2.0 

1.15 

1  .0 

2.O 
2.0 

7.0 
6.15 
7.0 
4-30 
4-3° 

9.0 

7-3° 
8.0 
6.30 
6.30 

8.0 

5-° 
4.0 
8.0 
8.0 

7.0 
615 

7.0 
4-3° 

4-3° 

J5'° 

11.15 

II.  0 

12.30 

12.30 

8.15 

29.15 

37-3° 

33-° 

29.15 

62.  15 

The  working  expenses  were  then  65  hours  30  m.  for 
drilling,  and  62  h.  15  m.  for  punching  and  reaming,  which 
gives  an  advantage  of  about  5  per  cent,  to  this  last  operation. 
It  must  be  observed  that  the  working  expenses  for  punch- 
ing comprise  the  labor  of  a  journeyman  attending  the  punch, 


TREA  TMENT  OF  PLA  TES,  ETC.  49 

and  three  laborers  handling  the  plates.  These  laborers' 
wages  are  less  than  the  journeyman's,  consequently,  5  per 
cent,  economy  is  a  minimum.  The  working  hours  of  the 
machines  were,  for  complete  drilling  63  h.  30  m.  and  for  punch- 
ing and  reaming  37  h.  30  m.  or  42  per  cent,  less  in  the  latter  case. 
Finally,  the  working  hours  of  the  drilling  machine  were  63  h. 
30  m.  in  the  first  case,  and  29  h.  15  m.  in  the  second — in  other 
words,  with  the  same  number  of  drilling  machines  it  is  possible, 
by  punching  and  then  reaming,  to  bore  within  the  same  time, 
53.  5  per  cent,  more  plates  than  by  direct  drilling. 

This  comparison  is  made,  taking  the  existing  stock  of  tools 
as  a  basis,  that  is  to  say,  the  tools  now  standing  in  the  iron 
shipyard  at  L'Orient.  It  is  probable  that  reaming  after  punch- 
ing could  be  done  much  more  rapidly  with  special  machinery. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  certain  that,  if  several  plates  were  to 
be  bored,  in  which  the  position  of  the  holes  was  identical, 
and  could  be  bored  all  at  once,  the  conditions  would  not  be 
the  same  ;  this  would  be  true  in  case  of  plates  in  which  the 
holes  were  in  a  straight  line,  and  the  same  distance  apart,  so 
that  several  drills  in  the  same  machine  could  be  operated  at 
one  time.  Leaving  aside,  then,  the  question  of  economy  re- 
alized by  the  use  of  multiple  drilling  machines  the  advantages 
of  which  will  often  be  great,  it  will  be  seen  that  punching  holes 
in  steel  plates  and  afterwards  enlarging  them  with  a  drill,  is 
not  disadvantageous  as  far  as  cost  is  concerned,  and  also  that 
it  accomplishes  the  same  results  as  if  the  number  of  drilling 
machines  was  doubled. 

The  number  of  these  machines  was  rather  restricted  at 
L'Orient,  when  steel  constructions  were  undertaken  ;  the  re- 
sults pointed  out  above  have  been  judged  amply  sufficient  to 
cause  punching  followed  by  reaming  to  be  adopted,  despite 
the  known  inconveniences  of  punching — /.  ^.,  lack  of  precision 
and  deformation  of  the  plates. 

The  Creusot  works  have  lately  put  in  our  hands,  to  pur- 
sue these  experiments,  pieces  of  very  soft  steel  plates  belong- 
3  4 


50  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

ing  to  the  categories  B.  10  and  C.  n  of  their  general  classi- 
fication table. 

Two  specimens  0.78  in.  wide  of  category  B.iogave  a  mean 
resistance  to  rupture  of  28.05  tons  per  inch,  and  a  correspond- 
ing stretching  of  23.5  per  cent.  Two  specimens  of  the  same 
plate,  punched  with  a  0.66  in.  cylindrical  hole  and  being  2.34 
in.  wide  gave  an  average  resistance  of  20.31  tons  per  square 
inch. 

One  experiment  was  made  with  the  plate  C.u  in  its  nat- 
ural state  and  one  after  punching.  A  strip  0.78  in.  wide  gave 
a  resistance  to  rupture  of  25.25  tons  per  in.  and  28  per  cent, 
elongation.  A  strip  2.34  in.  wide  with  a  0.66  in.  cylindrical 
punched  hole  gave  an  apparent  resistance  of  18.46  tons  per 
inch. 

It  must  be  observed  that  the  stretching  observed  in  these 
last  experiments  is  notably  inferior  to  that  indicated  in  the 
classification  table.  This  difference  may  result  from  the 
mode  of  fixing  the  specimens  in  the  apparatus  measuring  the 
stretching,  or  the  manner  in  which  the  successive  operations 
were  made.  We  will  mention  again  that  the  tractive  force 
was  increased  by  adding  44  Ibs.  at  a  time,  and  an  interval  was 
allowed  for  each  supplementary  weight  to  produce  its  proper 
effect.  At  Creusot  the  experiments  might  have  been  conduct- 
ed still  more  carefully  and  slowly.  It  must  also  be  noticed 
that  the  bars  experimented  upon  at  Creusot  were  not  as  long 
as  those  we  broke ;  stretching  was  observed  on  an  original 
length  of  0.39  in.  while  at  L'Orient  we  measured  it  on  an  0.78 
inch  length.  Now,  in  the  period  of  tension  preceding  rup- 
ture, the  specimens  have  a  narrowed  section  at  one  point  ; 
thenceforth  this  portion  undergoes  great  stretching,  which 
contributes  largely  to  making  up  the  total  stretching  observed 
which  is  greater  as  the  specimens  are  shorter. 

Whatever  may  be  the  cause  of  the  differences  between 
the  Creusot  and  L'Orient  observations,  it  must  be  noticed  that 
the  experiments  -we  made  were  performed  under  the  same 


TREA  TMENT  OF  PLA  TES,  ETC.  5  r 

conditions,   with  the  same   apparatus,  and   are  consequently 
comparable  between  themselves. 

Rings  cut  out  around  holes  punched  in  these  sample  plates 
cracked  when  they  were  brought  to  the  form  fig.  40  for  plate 
B  10,  and  fig.  41  for  plate  C  n.  Rings  surrounding  drilled 
holes  were  completely  flattened  ;  they  cracked  upon  trying  to 
open  them  again,  when  they  reach  form  fig.  42  for  plates  Bio 


40.— Full  Size. 


41.— Full  Size. 


42.— Full  Size. 


43-— Full  Size. 


and  fig.  43  for  plate  C  u.  The  punched  hole-rings  annealed 
to  cherry-red  and  cut  according  to  a  generatrix  were  develop- 
ed so  as  to  bring  in  to  extension  the  part  which  had  under- 
gone the  action  of  the  punch.  We  were  able  to  flatten  them 
completely  without  any  cracks.  From  these  last  experiments 
it  will  be  seen  that  these  plates  are  softer  than  those  previous- 
ly experimented  upon. 

These  last  trials  are  too  few  to  be  considered  as  important 
as  the  preceding  ones.  It  will  be  seen,  however,  that  these 
plates  were  much  altered  by  the  punch,  and  that  they  must 
be  considered,  in  reference  to  the  action  of  this  tool,  like  the 
less  soft  plates  used  in  the  constructions  at  L'Orient.  This 


52  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

fact  could  be  foreseen  from  the  alteration  produced  by  pun- 
ching in  iron  plates  previously  mentioned. 

These  Creusot  plates,  capable,  before  breaking,  of  an  enor- 
mous stretching,  are  not  greatly  modified  by  tempering,  as 
may  be  seen  by  the  figures  quoted  in  the  classification  table 
of  these  Works.  Thus,  in  admitting  the  results  there  indicated, 
the  plates  C  n  in  the  natural  state  break  under  a  stress  of 
24.92  tons  per  inch  and  have  an  elongation  of  35  per  cent.  The 
same  plates  tempered  in  oil  bear  29.16  tons,  and  still  stretch 
33  per  cent.  Thus,  simple  tempering  slightly  modifies  the 
properties  of  these  plates ;  the  punch  on  the  contrary,  which 
strongly  reduces  the  tenacity,  modifies  them  largely.  This 
difference  can  easily  be  accounted  for. 

When  plates  are  rapidly  cooled,  the  external  layer,  as  ex- 
plained in  the  preceding  chapters,  must  stretch  at  the 
expense  of  elasticity.  The  stretching  of  the  plates  on  the  list 
C  n,  reaching  their  elastic  limit  under  a  load  of  15.48  tons 
is  at  this  load  very  perceptible.  We  may  suppose  that  cooled  ex- 
terior fibres  will  have,  under  a  tension  slightly  higher  than  that  of 
the  elastic  limit,  a  sufficient  volume  to  contain  the  metal  inside. 
This  inside  metal  seems  then  not  to  be  subjected  by  ordinary 
tempering  to  a  stress  superior  to  16.50  to  17.14  tons.  The  more 
carburized  plates  reach  their  limit  of  elasticity  only  under 
a  heavier  load ;  with  the  same  tension,  their  elastic  limit  and 
permanent  stretching  are  less  than  in  the  preceding  plates. 
The  same  tempering  must  cause  a  greater  pressure  and 
consequently  a  greater  solution  of  carbon.  A  slight  varia- 
tion in  the  amount  of  carbon  which  greatly  changes  the  con- 
ditions of  elasticity,  can  then  produce,  by  tempering,  a  very 
marked  difference.  The  way  in  which  carburized  irons  be- 
have at  the  same  degree  of  tempering,  depends,  as  we  may 
observe,  only  upon  the  stretching  they  are  capable  of. 

In  the  different  plates  subjected  to  shearing  and  punching, 
the  alterations  were  about  as  important.  In  both  cases,  the 
metal  undergoes,  whatever  its  stretching  may  be,  a  pressure 


TREA  TMENT  OF  PL  A  TES,  ETC.  53 

sufficient  to  reach  the  limit  of  resistances  to  rupture.  If  we 
take  as  terms  of  comparison,  the  resistances  to  tension  instead 
of  resistances  to  shearing,  which  have  been  little  studied,  the 
plates  C  1 1  are  subjected  by  punching  to  a  stress  of  25.38  tons 
per  sq.  inch,  while  more  carburized  plates  such  as  those  used 
in  our  works  undergo  a  stress  of  28.56  tons  ;  the  difference  is 
slight,  and  as  long  as  there  is  not  saturation  in  the  solution 
of  the  carbon  in  the  iron,  the  supplementary  solutions  pro- 
duced by  punching  should  be  nearly  as  important.  The 
alteration  produced  by  punching  in  carburized  irons  depends 
essentially  on  the  resistance  of  these  irons  to  shearing. 

Plates  and  rolled  beams  must  often  undergo  a  more  or  less 
severe  hammering  either  to  straighten  them  or  to  bring  them  to 
the  desired  form.  The  blow  of  the  hammer  producing  a 
pressure  in  the  region  of  impact,  we  can  conceive  that  its  action 
ought  to  cause  effects  comparable  to  those  of  the  shears  or 
punch  ;  the  resulting  alteration  should  be  less  important  since 
the  pressure  produced  is  not  generally  strong  enough  to 
exceed  the  resistance  to  rupture. 

To  demonstrate  the  influence  of  hammering,  pieces  were 
cut  from  Creusot  angles  and  subjected  to  a  vigorous,  cold 
hammering  on  the  whole  surface  ;  under  this  influence  the 
stretching  of  the  metal  was  about  7.5  per  cent.  The  bars  were 
then  dressed,  brought  to  a  uniform  section  and  broken  in  the 
testing  machine.  In  operating  on  six  bars  2.  34  inch.wide  and 
treated  in  this  manner,  an  average  resistance  to  rupture  of 
34. 10  tons  and  a  corresponding  elongation  of  9.7  per  cent,  were 
obtained.  Thus,  hammering  had  considerably  increased 
resistance  to  rupture.  We  observed  that  the  mean  resistance  of 
the  Creusot  angles  in  the  natural  state  was  29.10  tons  per  sq. 
inch.  As  to  the  stretching,  a  notable  portion  of  it,  7.5  per 
cent,  had  been  evidently  absorbed  by  hammering.  In  the  bars 
showing  9.7  per  cent,  stretching,  the  total  was  17.2  per  cent, 
instead  of  24.5.  The  elasticity  of  the  metal  had  therefore 
been  very  much  modified  by  hammering.  Finally,  we  ascer- 


54  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

tained  by  filing  these  bars  that  they  were  much  harder  to  cut 
than  when  in  the  natural  state  ;  their  hardness  had  therefore 
been  increased.  These  are  the  characteristics  of  tempering. 
Hammering,  as  was  to  be  supposed  from  the  received  theory, 
acts  like  punching,  but  with  less  intensity.  Under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  pressure  which  the  hammered  parts  received, 
the  carbon  which  was  found  in  a  state  of  mixture  must  be 
more  or  less  in  solution  at  all  these  points. 

This  experiment  on  hammered  bars  was  repeated  with  the 
above  mentioned  Creusot  plates  Bio  and  C  n.  We  were 
able  to  make  only  one  strip  0.78  in.  wide  from  each  plate. 
For  the  first,  a  resistance  of  31.73  tons  and  an  elongation  of 
6  percent,  were  obtained  ;  for  the  second,  a  resistance  of  29.94 
tons  and  an  elongation  of  10  per  cent.  From  these  experi- 
ments, although  few  in  number,  it  is  probable  that  in  spite  of 
their  lesser  carburization  these  plates  received  from  hammer- 
ing an  effect  of  the  same  character  as  that  the  plates  received 
which  were  used  in  the  constructions  at  L'Orient.  We  en- 
deavored to  do  the  hammering  under  the  same  conditions  as 
in  the  preceding  experiments,  but  it  is  very  difficult  to  regulate 
the  intensity  of  the  blows,  and  it  is  presumable  that  these  last 
strips  received  a  more  energetic  hammering  then  the  first  ones. 

If  it  were  possible  to  temper  steels  to  a  degree  sufficient 
to  produce  the  solution  of  all  the  carbon  they  contain,  they 
could  be  subjected  to  a  general  and  regular  hammering 
without  evincing  any  sensible  variation  in  their  tenacity. 
They  would  only  lose  a  portion  of  their  stretching  properties, 
corresponding  to  the  part  absorbed  under  the  blows  of  the 
hammer. 

As  another  consequence  of  the  theories  expounded  above, 
hammered  bars  subjected  to  annealing  should  recover,  from 
this  cause  alone,  their  original  tenacity  and  elasticity.  Bars 
treated  under  these  conditions,  that  is  to  say,  hammered  on 
their  whole  surface  and  then  heated  to  cherry-red  and  cooled 
slowly,  have  in  fact  given  an  average  resistance  to  rupture  of 


TREATMENT  OF  PLATES,  ETC. 


55 


29.94   tons    and   an  elongation  of  23  per  cent     They  had 
therefore  completely  returned  to  their  previous  state. 

In  the  foregoing  experiments,  the  bars  were  hammered  as 
regularly  as  possible  on  their  whole  surface  ;  the  result  was  a 
metal  obviously  homogeneous  and  about  equally  tempered. 
In  practice,  plates  and  rolled  beams  undergo  this  hammering 
on  a  few  points  of  their  surface  only.  After  local  blows  of 
the  hammer,  the  metal  must  show  indications 
of  defects  in  homogeneity  similar  to  those  ob- 
served after  punching,  that  is  to  say  an  apparent 
reduction  of  tenacity.  This  experiment  is  diffi- 
cult to  perform  on  small  bars,  for  this  dim- 
inution of  tenacity  must  be  considerable  in  order 
to  be  perceptible  in  breaking ;  the  metal  de- 
livered by  the  Works,  although  in  most  cases 
remarkably  homogeneous,  shows  on  several 
points,  slight  differences  of  resistance,  but  of  the 
same  character  as  that  which  would  be  observed 
after  the  blows  of  a  hammer. 

We  were  able  to  ascertain  approximately,  the 
effect  of  local  hammering  by  the  following  ex- 
periment :  strips  of  Terre-Noire  plate,  0.46  in. 
wide,  were  subjected  to  the  pressure  of  a  short 
punch  0.74  in.  in  diameter ;  this  pressure  was 
produced  by  a  hydraulic  press,  by  placing  the 
specimens  on  an  iron  bearing.  The  punch  was 
impressed  into  the  plates,  which  after  the 
operation  had  a  depression  0.39  in.  deep  at  the 
compressed  point,  but  no  hole  was  completely  taken  out.  The 
specimens  were  then  dressed  on  their  whole  surface,  and  sub- 
jected to  breaking  by  tension.  Fig.  44  represents  the  average 
form  of  the  bars  after  rupture,  and  the  dotted  circumference 
indicates  the  compressed  part.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  fig- 
ure that  the  region  comprising  it  did  not  suffer  the  same  deform- 
ation as  the  rest  of  the  specimens.  The  breaking  stress 


Fig.  44- 


56  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

per  sq.  inch  was  about  31.73  tons.  As  rupture  took  place 
outside  of  the  compressed  part,  the  average  resistance  of  the 
Terre-Noire  plates  was  naturally  to  be  expected.  The  aver- 
age elongation  was  18  per  cent.,  a  little  less  than  the  average 
elongation  found  in  plates  in  the  natural  state.  In  this  experi- 
ment, the  compressed  part  had  extent  enough  to  bear  the  whole 
stress  in  spite  of  the  more  considerable  elongation  of  the  ex- 
ternal fibres  ;  but  it  is  evident  that  in  wider  strips  this  region 
should  have  broken  first,  showing  the  phenomena  noticed  in 
punched  plates. 

The  same  experiment  was  repeated  ;  but  in  order  to  lessen 
the  importance  of  the  altered  part  a  0.58  in.  hole  was  drilled 
in  the  centre  of  the  compressed  part.  The  bars  thus  obtained 
were  in  a  condition  similar  to  those  with  punched  holes  ; 
only,  the  steel  was  less  altered  at  the  edges  of  the  hole  in  the 
former  than  the  latter,  for  the  pressure  it  had  been  subjected 
to  was  inferior  to  that  necessary  to  produce  rupture.  These 
specimens  broken  by  tension,  showed  a  reduction  in  resistance 
of  about  0.58  ton  per  sq.  in. 

In  another  similar  experiment,  we  wished  to  prove  the 
pernicious  influence  that  a  rivet  heading  tool  may  have  when 
used  on  too  short  rivets. 

Strips  2.34  in.  wide,  drilled  with  a  0.70  in.  drill,  received 
a  countersunk  rivet,  the  end  of  which  was  vigorously  hammered 
so  as  to  visibly  print  the  end  of  the  tool  in  the  metal.  The 
rivet  being  removed  and  the  specimen  broken  in  the  testing- 
machine,  the  resistance  was  found  to  be  from  0.58  to  1.18 
tons  inferior  to  that  of  the  specimens  in  the  natural  state. 

This  pressure  may  be  compared  to  that  resulting  from  the 
blow  of  a  hammer ;  we  can  thence  know  what  takes  place  in  a 
plate  struck  in  one  particular  point.  There  is  at  first,  on  the 
point  of  impact,  a  crushing  of  the  metal  and  compression  in 
every  direction  by  the  reaction  of  the  surrounding  parts. 
Then,  tempering  will  take  place  on  account  of  this  very  pressure. 
If,  afterwards,  this  plate  is  subjected  to  a  sufficient  tensile 


TREA  TMENT  OF  PL  A  TES,  ETC.  57 

strain,  a  notable  elongation  will  take  place  in  the  unaltered 
part,  before  any  effect  of  the  kind  will  be  noticed  in  the 
altered  region  ;  first  because  the  latter  has  already  undergone 
a  certain  stretching  and  was  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment 
compressed  by  the  external  fibres ;  also  because,  being 
tempered,  it  is  able  to  bear  a  heavy  load  before  reaching  its 
elastic  limit.  But  the  unaltered  part  stretching  more  rapidly, 
the  point  of  impact  has  to  bear  a  greater  portion  of  the  stress 
than  it  would  have  done  in  a  homogeneous  specimen,  and 
rupture  will  take  place  at  this  point  with  a  less  effort  than 
might  be  expected.. 

When  the  blow  of  the  hammer  is  slight,  the  tempering 
thus  produced  is  insignificant  and  without  depth ;  the  same 
effect  takes  place  when  a  large  surface  is  struck.  When 
hammering  steel  plates  or  steel  angles  cannot  be  avoided,  it 
will  be  better  to  strike  on  a  broad  surface  which  will  distribute 
over  a  large  area  the  pressure  due  to  the  blow. 

Plates  or  angles  subjected  to  local  hammering  and  then 
annealed,  no  longer  show  the  defects  pointed  out  above  ;  the 
cherry-red  temperature  to  which  they  are  heated  restores  to 
the  metal  its  lost  elasticity,  and  slow  cooling  allows  the 
carbon  in  solution  to  separate  regularly,  so  that  finally  a 
homogeneous  metal  is  obtained. 

The  defects  in  homogeneity,  which  are  consequent  upon 
hammering,  must  aiso  produce  in  steel  plates,  a  wear  some- 
times rather  rapid  on  account  of  galvanic  currents  developed 
by  it.  When  studying,  in  practice,  the  way  in  which  steel 
behaves,  as  to  duration  as  well  as  resistance,  it  is  most 
important  to  get  every  information  concerning  the  wear, 
before  making  observations  on  the  modes  of  working. 
3* 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ON    PROCESSES  SPECIAL  TO  PLATES. 

INDEPENDENTLY  of  the  processes  just  described,  steel  plates 
to  be  brought  to  their  final  form,  must  undergo  different  oper- 
ations of  straightening,  planing,  and  forming,  either  cold  or 
hot. 

Straightening  may  be  done  by  the  hammer  or  by  a  ma- 
chine. In  the  first  case,  the  metal  is  subjected  to  all  the  in- 
jurious effects  of  hammering ;  this  mode  of  operation  must, 
as  much  as  possible,  be  avoided  unless  the  parts  are  annealed 
afterwards.  In  the  second  case,  the  straightening  is  done  in 
a  machine  —  a  sort  of  roll  train  —  made  essentially  of  three 
cylindrical  rolls  between  which  the  plate  passes,  and  is  thus 
forced  to  take  a  regular  curve ;  a  second  pass  in  an  op- 
posite direction  removes  the  curve  produced  by  the  first. 
These  two  operations  sufficiently  repeated,  cause  local  corru- 
gations to  disappear.  The  piece  being  subjected  in  this  op- 
eration only  to  a  slight  and  regular  deformation  and  to  a  gen- 
eral pressure  which  maintains  the  fibres  in  the  same  state,  can 
receive  none  of  the  injurious  results  of  local  tempering. 

This  machine  may  also  be  used  in  curving  plates  in 
their  wide  direction.  If  the  distance  between  housings  al- 
lows it,  the  plate  may  be  put  through  crosswise  ;  or  the  cylin- 
drical rolls  may  be  replaced  by  swelling  ones,  the  pressure  of 
which,  extending  over  the  whole  surface,  cannot  do  any  dam- 
age. 


ON  PROCESSES  SPECIAL  TO  PLATES.  59 

This  process  of  straightening  has  been  adopted  almost 
exclusively  for  the  plates  used  at  L'Orient ;  it  was  ascertained 
that  after  the  operation  they  were  as  soft  as  before. 

With  plates  which  cannot  be  brought  to  the  desired  form 
by  this  machine,  it  will  be  necessary  to  produce  the  deforma- 
tion through  a  regular  pressure  distributed  over  a  certain  sur- 
face. If  the  operation  is  done  cautiously,  the  metal  will  re- 
main about  as  soft  as  before  ;  the  deformation  will  only  ab- 
sorb a  part  of  the  elongation  it  is  capable  of  before  rupture. 
In  most  cases  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  anneal. 

If  it  becomes  impossible  to  form  the  plates  without  ham- 
mering or  without  intense  local  pressure,  or  if  the  deformation 
is  to  be  considerable,  it  is  necessary  to  proceed  cautiously  and 
methodically  in  order  to  avoid  cracks  during  the  operation. 
The  hammering  must  be  done  by  light  blows  on  the  largest 
possible  surface  ,  the  required  shape  must  be  completely  ob- 
tained only  after  several  operations.  Finally,  the  plate  being 
formed,  it  must  be  annealed  immediately,  because  plates  in  an 
unstable  state  of  equilibrium  are  more  exposed  to  breaking 
under  external  influences  in  proportion  as  they  remain  longer 
under  these  conditions. 

The  heating  of  Steel  plates  demands  particular  caution, 
and  it  has  been  long  recognized  that  they  should  not  be  treat- 
ed like  iron  plates.  For,  let  us  consider  what  takes  place  in 
a  plate  heated  in  a  forge  fire  on  a  region  of  greater  or  less  ex- 
tent. While  the  exterior  fibres  which  are  not  brought  under 
the  influence  of  the  fire  preserve  the  same  positions  and  di- 
mensions, the  part  heated  to  a  high  temperature  is  expanded 
and  so  compresses  all  the  surrounding  metal.  This  compres- 
sion causes  tempering  and  a  permanent  deformation  in  the 
region  surrounding  the  heated  parts.  When  the  plate  is 
withdrawn  from  the  fire,  the  fibres  previously  compressed  and 
tempered  will  be  subjected  to  a  progressive  tension  producing 
an  alteration  of  elasticity  in  a  direction  contrary  to  the  prece- 
ding one,  and  greater  and  greater  as  the  cooling  takes  place  ; 


60  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

but  the  effect  of  tempering  resulting  from  the  original  pressure 
will  not  be  decreased  by  this  tension.  The  heated  part,  on 
the  contrary,  is  subjected  to  compression  only  when  it  is  in 
the  fire  ;  it  can  not  be  tempered  by  this  alone.  In  cooling, 
it  is  subjected  to  a  stress  of  elongation  only,  coming  from  the 
resistance  the  deformed  external  fibres  oppose  to  its  contrac- 
tion. A  plate  originally  homogeneous  is  therefore,  after  going 
through  the  fire,  in  a  state  very  different  from  its  previous 
one. 

When  afterwards,  it  has  to  be  subjected  to  a  slight  de- 
formation, its  different  fibres  do  not  work  together  ;  some  go 
beyond  their  limit  of  resistance,  and  the  plate  may  break  under 
a  slight  strain.  These  breaks  take  place,  in  some  cases  from 
the  most  insignificant  causes  ;  the  concussion  of  a  hammer 
blow,  or  of  a  centre-punch,  a  decrease  in  temperature  of  a  few 
degrees,  etc.,  etc. 

It  must  be  noticed  that  rupture  ought  to  take  place  in 
most  cases,  not  in  the  most  heated  part,  but  in  the  neighbor- 
ing region  which  has  been  tempered,  and  has  had  to  undergo 
in  this  state,  while  cooling,  a  permanent  elongation;  experience, 
in  fact,  verifies  this. 

Local  heats  must  therefore  be  avoided  as  much  as  possi- 
ble ;  but  if  by  this  means  a  plate  has  been  brought  to  its 
definitive  form  without  accident,  it  must  be  immediately  an- 
nealed, and  in  this  operation,  every  effort  should  tend  to 
gradual  heating,  because  a  sudden  increase  of  temperature  at 
a  point  where  molecular  tensions  were  already  exaggerated 
might  lead  to  rupture.  When  proper  care  has  been  exercised 
in  working  the  plates,  these  tensions  ought  to  be  quite  slight; 
the  plates  can  then  be  put  suddenly  into  an  annealing  furnace 
at  a  cherry-red  heat.  Rupture  could  occur  only  if,  at  the  time 
of  putting  the  plate  on  the  fire  it  was  in  a  very  unstable  state 
of  equilibrium.  The  annealing  at  L'Orient,  was  done  under 
these  conditions,  and  it  was  not  found  necessary  to  deviate  from 
this  practice.  When  the  plate  is  heated  regularly  at  a  sufficient 


ON  PROCESSES  SPECIAL  TO  PL  A  TES.  l&y^  £ 

temperature,  it  can  be  left  to  cool  slowly,  and  the  injurious 
effects  of  local  heating  will  be  completely  destroyed ;  homoge- 
neity will  be  re-established. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  bring  a  steel  plate  to  a  high  tern" 
perature  at  one  point,  it  may,  in  order  to  decrease  the  risk  of 
rupture,  be  heated  progressively  in  a  charcoal  fire,  and  burning 
coals  may  be  distributed  over  a  certain  surface  around 
the  region  to  be  brought  to  maximum  temperature,  thus  pro- 
gressively diminishing  the  heat  at  successive  points  away 
from  the  hottest  point ;  the  endeavor  is  in  other  words  to 
bring  a  certain  intermediate  surface  of  the  plate  to  a  degree 
of  heat  intermediate  between  the  hottest  and  the  coolest 
parts. 

For  the  reasons  mentioned  above,  all  local  cooling,  which 
would  produce  injurious  effects  similar  to  those  of  local  heat- 
ing (although  less  in  degree),  must  be  avoided. 

The  hammering  of  hot  steel  plate  does  no  damage  when  it 
is  done  at  a  sufficiently  high  temperature  ;  but,  when  a  plate 
is  subjected  to  hammering  from  the  moment  it  is  red  until  it 
is  cold,  the  effect  is  at  least  as  injurious  as  that  of  cold  ham- 
mering. The  blows  struck  when  it  is  hot  maintain  the  solu- 
tion of  carbon  produced  by  the  high  temperature,  while  cold 
hammering  must  produce  a  solution  of  the  mechanically  mixed 
carbon.  It  will  be  understood  then,  that  in  the  case  of  a  pro- 
longed hammering,  from  the  time  the  plate  is  red  until  it  be- 
comes cold,  the  final  solution  of  carbon  is  more  complete  than 
in  the  case  of  cold  hammering  alone. 

Therefore,  when  a  hot  plate  has  to  be  hammered,  this  op- 
eration must  be  stopped  while  the  temperature  is  yet  high 
enough  to  allow,  by  subsequent  cooling,  the  separation  of  the 
carbon.  With  this  precaution,  hot  hammering  will  produce 
no  injurious  effects.  When  steel  plates  are  to  be  greatly 
changed  in  figure,  the  work  may  be  executed  by  different  pro- 
cesses, never  losing  sight  of  the  previously  indicated  precau- 
tions. The  plate  can  first  be  made  to  approach  the  desired 


62 


THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 


form  by  a  deformation  while  cold,  by  pressure  on  a  part  of  the 
surface  or  by  slight  hammering  ;  this  should  be  stopped  when 
breaking  might  occur  from  pushing  the  deformation  any  fur- 
ther. The  plate  must  then  be  annealed  at  a  very  even  cherry- 
red  :  it  will  then  be  able  to  bear  a  new  deformation.  After 
this  annealing,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  plate  is  less  hard  to 
work  than  at  the  end  of  the  former  operation.  The  plate 
will  thus  be  subjected  to  a  series  of  cold  bendings  and  anneal- 


Fig.  45- 


ings,  until  it  reaches  the  desired  form.  After  the  last  annealing, 
it  should  be  but  slightly  bent  (avoiding  the  use  of  hammer), 


ON  PROCESSES  SPECIAL  TO  PLATES.          63 

merely  to  remedy  the  slight  change  of  figure  the  last  heat  may 
have  caused. 

A  plate  may  also  be  worked  after  having  been  heated  over 
its  whole  surface  ;  in  this  case,  the  form  must  be  reached  by 
pressure  on  a  large  surface,  by  bending,  or  by  a  hammering 
which  should  cease  at  dark  red.  When  the  piece  is  brought  to 
its  form,  by  one  or  several  heats,  it  should  be  put  in  the  fire  for 
the  last  time  and  left  to  cool  slowly,  without  working. 

If  this  annealing  should  have  produced  a  slight  deformation, 
It  may  be  remedied  by  slight  pressure  when  cold. 

These  two  methods  are  equally  sure,  when  the  principles 
as  set  forth,  are  carried  out. 

As  the  working  of  hot  steel  plates  presents  no  difficulty 
when  stopped  at  dark  red,  this  metal  should  be  well  adapted 
to  stamped  work  which  is  done  by  a  few  rapid  blows.  We 
will  mention  two  examples. 

We  have  been  able  to  obtain  without  difficulty  and  in 
large  numbers,  the  pieces  fig.  45,  made  of  steel  plate  0.39 


IB 

Fig.  46. 


Section  A  B. 


in.  thick.  They  present,  as  may  be  seen,  a  shape  similar  to 
that  of  a  hat  the  crown  of  which  is  polygonal.  In  making 
them  the  anvil  carried  a  prism-shaped  die,  and  a  corresponding 
stamp  was  fixed  to  the  steam-hammer  head.  The  plate 
heated  to  bright  cherry-red,  was  placed  on  the  anvil,  and  by 


64  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

two  blows  of  the  hammer  was  brought  to  the  desired  form. 
As  this  working  was  all  done,  on  account  of  the  rapidity  of 
the  operations,  while  the  specimen  was  at  a  high  temperature, 
the  plates  were  found  to  be  very  soft  after  the  stamping ; 
the  file  and  chisel  cut  them  as  easily  as  before.  Subsequent 
annealing  was  dispensed  with.* 

Other  plates  were  stamped  to  form  filling  pieces  (fig.  46)  t 
between  the  I  beams  making  up  the  framing  of  the  decks. 
A  flange  3.12  in.  wide  and  0.31  inch  thick  was  turned  down 
on  three  sides  of  these  plates  ;  these  flanges  had  shoulders 
corresponding  to  the  flanges  of  the  I  beams.  The  plate, 
being  placed  on  an  anvil,  was  formed  by  one  blow  of  the 
hammer.  But  it  was  not  possible  to  give  to  the  flanges  a 
decided  enough  outline  by  this  operation  alone  ;  their  angles 
had  to  be  formed  at  a  second  heat,  when  the  plate  was  worked 
on  a  special  anvil  with  a  hammer.  Complete  annealing 
followed  this  last  manipulation.  These  pieces  were  thus 
manufactured  in  great  numbers  without  any  particular 
incident;  the  metal  was  as  soft  as  in  the  original  state. 

The  annealing,  for  steel  plates,  must  be  very  regular  over 
the  whole  surface,  as  they  are  generally  very  thin ;  the 
temperature  should  be  obviously  the  same  over  the  whole 
thickness.  This  annealing  might  be  effected  in  a  charcoal 
fire  without  blast ;  but  a  perfect  equality  of  temperature  on  a 
sometimes  considerable  surface  is  never  certain.  A  better  way 
is  to  heat  them  in  an  ordinary  furnace,  or  still  better  in  a 
Siemens  furnace  ;  the  temperature,  in  the  latter,  can  be  very 
well  regulated,  and  it  is  easy  to  avoid  a  flame  either  oxydying 
or  carburizing  which  would  have  the  effect  of  modifizing  the 
homogeneity  of  the  plate.  In  order  to  obtain  perfect  annealing 
the  heated  plate  must  be  afterward  cooled  slowly.  This 

*  More  than  70  caps,  fig.  45,  were  stamped — none  were  defective. 

t  "  Over  700  pieces  like  fig.  46,  and  still  more  complicated  forms  were 
manufactured  without  spoiling  one.  We  did  not  succeed  in  obtaining  a 
single  one  from  fine  Guerigny  iron  plate,  excellent  in  quality." 


ON  PROCESSES  SPECIAL  TO  PLA  TES.  65 

operation  is  easy  with  a  charcoal  fire,  where  the  plate  may  be 
left  until  it  is  completely  cool,  by  letting  the  fire  go  out ;  but 
it  would  be  impossible  in  a  gas  furnace.  This  precaution  is, 
however,  not  necessary  with  plates  which  are  not  very  thick. 
It  is  sufficient  to  cool  evenly  on  the  floor  of  the  shop,  avoiding 
local  contact  with  heat-conducting  matters  and  above  all  with 
the  irregularly  damp  ground,  which  would  cause  at  certain, 
points  a  fall  of  'temperature  more  rapid  than  at  others.  The 
difference  of  temperature  between  the  exterior  and  interior  .of 
a  plate,  in  the  different  phases  of  its  cooling,  it  so  slight  that 
the  more  rapid  contraction  of  the  superficial  fibres  can  exert 
but  a  small  pressure,  and  consequently  small  tempering; 
besides,  complete  cooling  under  these  circumstances  demands 
considerable  time ;  the  interior  and  exterior,  separated  only 
by  a  few  millimetres,  one  centimetre  (0.39  in)  at  most,  are 
maintained  at  very  nearly  even  temperatures.  At  L'Orient  the 
steel  plates  were  left  to  cool  on  cast  iron  curving  plates. 

The  gas  furnace  is  the  most  convenient  and  simple  means  for 
bringing  altered  plates  back  to  a  state  very  near  the  maximum 
of  softness  they  are  capable  of.  Punched  plates  can  easily 
be  subjected  to  annealing  under  these  conditions;  the  heat 
they  undergo  suppresses  the  injurious  effect^  of  the  punch,  but 
they  have  to  be  ma<3e  flat  afterwards.  This  operation  does 
not  produce  any  obvious  variation  in  the  position  and  form  of 
the  holes  ;  it  may,  therefore,  be  used  in  many  cases  to  obviate 
the  effects  of  punching,  instead  of  enlarging  the  holes,  as  treat- 
ed of  in  the  preceding  chapter. 

The  precautions  demanded  in  the  working  up  of  plates  as 
we  have  just  stated*  evidently  assume  more  importance  as 
these  plates  are  richer  in  carbon,  or  more  steely ;  but,  even 
with  the  softest  metal,  they  must  not  be  lost  sight  of.  It  is 
known  that,  with  iron  plates  vigorously  worked  and  subjected 

*  More  than  1,653,000  Ibs  of  steel  plates  were  used  according  to  these 
different  processes  at  L'Orient ;  no  rupture  was  observed. 


66  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

to  heats  and  local  hammering,  care  is  taken  to  anneal  them, 
when  it  is  desired  to  restore  to  them  all  their  homogeneity 
and  elasticity.  They  are  much  less  subject  than  steel  to  the 
phenomena  of  tempering,  since  they  contain  only  traces  of 
carbon ;  the  elastic  properties  of  the  metal  are  but  little  varied 
by  local  pressures,  and  such  ruptures  as  appear  spontaneous 
in  steel  are  not  to  be  feared.  The  main  object  of  anneal- 
ing is  to  restore  the  elasticity  absorbed  by  the  deformations, 
but  it  nevertheless  contributes  to  the  disappearance  of  the 
few  defects  in  homogeneity,  which  may  exist  in  the  very  con- 
stitution of  the  metal. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ON    PROCESSES   SPECIAL   TO   ANGLE-BARS. 

ANGLE -BARS,  before  being  brought  to  their  final  form,  have 
to  undergo  successive  operations  varying  with  their  length, 
and  consisting  of  opening  or  closing  the  flanges,  to  form  acute 


T 


Fig.  47- 


or  obtuse  angles,  and  also  in  bending  or  curving  the  flanges 
as  formed  by  the  first  operation. 

In  the  ships  built  at  L'Orient,  when  the  bending  was  not 


68 


THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 


too  decided,  the  work  was  entirely  done  cold,  and  a  great 
part  of  the  angle  bars  used  there  were  so  treated. 

Changing  the  angle  of  the  flanges  was  done  with  a  heavy 
punching  machine    somewhat  modified.     To  open  the  bars, 


Fig.  48. 


that  is  to  say,  to  produce  obtuse  angles,  the  apparatus  fig.  47 
was  used    The  die  was  replaced  by  a  piece  A,  the  upper  out- 


ON  PROCESSES  SPECIAL  TO  ANGLE-BARS.      69 

line  of  which  formed  an  obtuse  angle  ;  the  punch  was  replaced 
by  the  piece  B,  correspondingto  the  profile  of  the  piece  A.  The 
moveable  blocks  C  allowed  varying  the  height  of  the  piece  A 
with  reference  to  the  piece  B.  The  angle-bar  was  placed  on 
the  die  A,  the  punch  B  pressed  on  the  angle  which  was  the  more 
opened  in  proportion  as  the  punch  reached  lower  in  relation 
to  the  die,  that  is  to  say,  in  proportion  as  the  die  was  raised 
higher  by  the  blocks  C.  The  smallest  effect  was  obtained  by 
removing  all  or  part  of  the  blocking,  which  moreover  could 
be  made  to  vary  for  different  parts  of  the  bar.  Care  was 
taken,  when  it  was  desired  to  open  a  certain  part  considerably, 


Fig.  49- 


Fig.   50. 


not  to  let  the  machine  exert,  at  one  movement,  its  maximum 
effect,  but  the  result  was  arrived  at  by  a  series  of  deformations 
on  a  certain  length,  corresponding  to  several  successive  block- 


7o  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

ings.  For  the  most  obtuse  angles,  the  pieces  A  and  B  were 
replaced  by  others  more  decidedly  obtuse.  The  angle-bars,  after 
having  been  put  through  the  first  machine,  were  subjected  by 
another  to  one  or  several  operations,  always  varying  the  blocks 
C.  To  close  angle  irons,  that  is  to  say  to  obtain  acute  angles,  the 
same  punching  machine  was  used  but  the  pieces  A  and  B  were 
replaced  by  others  as  A'  and  B'  fig.  48.  The  punch  B'  press- 
ing in  the  angle,  forced  it  into  the  die  A'  the  action  of  which 
was  to  close  the  flanges  to  an  acute  angle.  The  variable 
blocks  C'  allowed  as  before  different  degrees  of  closing  the 
angle,  and  so  arriving  at  very  acute  forms  by  several  successive 
operations.  The  most  acute  forms  were  reached  by  subjecting 
the  pieces  to  new  deformations  by  replacing  the  pieces  A'  B 
by  others  still  more  acute. 

The  angle  bars  being  brought  to  the  proper  angle  were 
then  taken  to  the  bending  machine.  This  operation  was 
effected  by  screw  presses,  fig.  49  and  50.  The  piece  was 
placed  on  the  fixed  points  D  and  E  upon  iron  blocks  to  pre- 
vent an  alteration  of  the  angle  previously  obtained  ;  the  end 
of  the  screw  was  furnished  with  a  moveable  head  C  which 
did  not  follow  the  rotary  motion  of  the  screw,  and  in  one 
flange  of  the  iron  could  be  fixed  if  necessary.  The  workmen, 
by  manipulating  arms  fixed  to  the  head  of  the  screw,  subjected 
the  piece  to  a  greater  or  less  pressure  and  brought  it  to  the 
desired  change  of  shape. 

We  endeavored  to  estimate  the  alterations  produced  in  the 
metal  by  these  two  operations  of  bending  and  changing  the 
angle  of  the  flanges.  Trial  bars  were  cut  in  iron  curved  ac- 
cording to  the  different  radii,  some  with  their  angle  altered 
and  others  not.  By  operation  on  angle-irons  2.92"  x  2.92"  x 
0.31"  and  3.93"  X  3.12''  X  0.39"  the  following  results  were 
obtained  : 


ON  PROCESSES  SPECIAL  TO  ANGLE-BARS. 


71 


ig 

STRAIGHT 

FLANGE. 

CURVED   1 

^LANGE. 

d 

w 

o 

»  « 

' 

< 

Resistance  in  tons 
per  square 
inch. 

Elongation    per 
yard. 

Resistance  in  tons 
per   square 
inch. 

Elongation    per 
yard. 

feet. 

feet. 

feet. 

o 

9-84 

31.22 

0-539 

30.57 

0.567 

o 

3-93 

27-34 

0-539 

28.75 

0.300 

o 

2.68 

30.26 

0.300 

32.04 

0.195 

n 

9.84 

29.19 

0.508 

28.94 

0.552 

18 

9.84 

30.84 

0.463 

31-54 

0.500 

These  figures  show  that  curving  to  a  large  radius  and  a 
slight  changing  of  the  angle  have  but  little  influence  on  the  elon- 
gation and  resistance  to  rupture  of  test  pieces  taken  from 
angle  bars.  With  a  9.84  ft.  radius  and  an  18°  change  of 
angle,  the  elongation  observed  was  above  fifteen  per  cent.  A 
great  number  of  angle  bars  for  ribs  of  the  ships  built  at 
L'Orient  were  worked  under  these  conditions  without  showing 
any  peculiar  phenomena ;  they  were  however  below  the 
limits  mentioned  of  curving  and  changing  the  angle. 

These  operations  were  rapidly  performed  and  gave  very 
satisfactory  results  as  to  precision  and  economy. 

When  the  angle  bars  at  the  extremities  of  the  ships,  which 
required  a  more  decided  curvature  and  change  of  angle  had  to  be 
formed,  the  conditions  of  this  mode  of  cold  working,  at  first  so 
simple  were  considerably  complicated.  The  process  used  in 


changing  the  angle  involved  the  defect  of  bending  the  flanges  in 
their  width  when  strong  acute  or  obtuse  angles  were  desired 


72  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

(fig.  51  and  52).  The  region  around  the  angle  resisted 
deformation,  which  then  came  on  the  surrounding  parts. 
The  flanges  which  formed  obviously  plane  surfaces  after 
a  slight  change  of  angle  became  concave  or  convex  for  very 
acute  or  very  obtuse  angles.  These  angle  bars  could  not  be 
laid  close  upon  the  plates  they  were  to  join,  and  this  rounded 
part  had  to  be  dressed  off.  This  might  be  done,  if  necessary, 
for  obtuse  angles,  by  chiselling  off  the  external  part  forming 
the  top  of  the  angle ;  but,  for  acute  angles,  the  object  could 
have  been  reached  only  by  hammering,  the  injurious  results 
of  which  have  been  seen  above. 

Moreover  when  bending  was  done  at  a  rather  short  radius, 
the  flange  of  the  bar  which  was  to  remain  flat  and  which  was 
brought  under  the  action  of  the  screw,  was  compelled  to  contract 
and  work  under  the  effect  of  compression.  A  series  of  local 
protuberances  were  produced,  and  as  they  assumed  consider- 
able magnitude  it  was  impossible  to  remove  them  by  the  press 
alone  ;  it  was  necessary  to  resort  again  to  hammering.  Under 
the  influence  of  these  various  causes, — curving  to  short  radius, 
decided  change  of  angle,  and  hammer  blows,  rupture  occurred 
•in  a  few  bars  at  the  beginning  of  the  constructions.  These  rup- 
tures were  generally  produced  by  hammer  blows ;  a  few 
took  place  while  bending  after  hammering.  At  this  period 
•of  the  work  the  extent  of  injury  due  to  hammering  was  not 
known  ;  it  was  only  after  these  accidents  and  the  experiments 
mentioned  above  that  we  were  led  to  abandon  all  careless 
hammering.  However  a  few  cases  of  rupture  had  taken 
place  in  bars  which  had  not  suffered  from  hammer  blows ; 
this  fact  seemed  a  priori  rather  extrordinary  when  we  consid- 
ered the  elongation  obtained  in  bars  cut  from  bent  angle  bars 
the  angles  of  which  had  been  changed.  But  we  were  able 
to  account  for  it  by  attentive  observation  of  the  conditions 
under  which  the  operations  had  taken  place,  conditions  which 
were  easily  modified  as  we  will  explain,  so  as  to  make  the 
cases  of  rupture  exceedingly  rare. 


ON  PROCESSES  SPECIAL  TO  ANGLE-BARS.      73 

The  processes  used  to  bend  and  to  change  the  angle  had 
in  themselves  when  decided  deformations  were  to  be  obtained, 
the  defects  of  hammering  by  producing  local  pressures,  and  as 
a  consequence,  local  tempering.  This  fact  may  be  noticed  in 
the  operation  of  opening  or  closing  the  angle.  The  parts 
which  receive  the  impact  of  the  press-tools  which  correspond 
to  the  die  and  punch  in  the  punching  machine,  are  compress- 
ed very  little  for  small  deformations,  much  more  so  when  the 
angles  become  very  different  from  a  right  angle,  but  above  all 
when  it  is  desired  to  obtain  by  one  single  operation  a  heavy 
change  of  angle.  For  in  this  case  the  fibres  included  between 
the  closed  or  opened  region  and  that  surrounding  it,  which  is 
not  yet  touched,  are  obliged  to  stretch  permanently.  When 
afterwards  this  neighboring  part  is  subjected  to  deformation 
the  stretched  fibres  must  be  compressed  so  as  to  be  brought 
into  line  with  the  previously  worked  parts.  In  order  to  avoid 
or  at  least  to  greatly  modify  this  effect,  the  angle  bars  were 
submitted  to  a  series  of  small  changes  of  figure.  With  this 
precaution  the  injurious  effect  of  compressions  was  consider- 
ably decreased  and  was  distributed  upon  a  greater  number  of 
points. 

Moreover,  the  deformation  of  an  angle  bar  with  a  press 


c' 


7T 

Fig.  53- 


requires  a  greater  effort,  in  proportion  as  the  piece  has  larger 
dimensions.  This  pressure  exerts  itself  in  part  at  the  point 
A  (Fig.  53)  where  the  screw  works,  and  in  part  at  the  points 
B  and  C  forming  the  bearing  points  for  the  specimen.  There 
was  then  at  these  three  points  local  tempering  which  did  not 


74 


THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 


take  place  in  the  surrounding  parts,  and  which  might  subse- 
quently be  a  cause  of  rupture — a  more  important  cause  as  the 
angle  bars  opposed  more  resistance.  This  effect,  which  we 
did  not  think  of  remedying  at  the  beginning  of  the  work,  was 
notably  lessened  by  interposing  between  the  angle  bar  and 
the  points  ABC,  blocks,  which  distributing  the  pressure  over 
a  considerable  surface,  much  decreased  its  intensity  at  each 


Fig.  54- 


point.  Before  taking  this  precaution,  it  was  observed  that 
angle  bars  after  having  been  subjected  to  a  certain  degree  of 
deformation  began  to  oppose  more  resistance — became  harder 
to  work  than  at  the  beginning  of  the  operation.  By  employing 
blocks,  this  effect  became  less  noticeable. 

It  must  be  observed  besides,  that  an  angle  bar  subjected 
to  a  pressure  at  A  (fig.  54)  will  not  be  deformed  on  its  whole 
length  B  C  'C  ;  elongation  will  take  place  mainly  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  point  C',  between  the  points  DD'  for 
instance.  If  it  is  desired  to  bend  the  bar  to  the  arc  of  a  circle 
with  a  radius  ol  3  metres,  the  point  C'  may  be  brought  to  the 
curve  by  one  blow  on  a  point  of  this  circumference,  the  points 
F  and  F'  coming  to  B  and  C. 

The  elongation  caused  by  flexure  will  be  the  difference  be- 
tween the  curve  B  D'  C  D  C  and  the  length  F  F/  This 
elongation  relatively  to  the  length  F  F'  is  slight  ;  but  in  fact 
it  is  furnished  by  the  length  G  G'  which  becomes  D  D',  and 
this  elongation  acquires  then  per  metre,  considerable  value. 
It  is  therefore  important,  in  bending  with  a  press,  to  operate 
on  points  sufficiently  near  to  each  other,  so  as  to  produce  a 


<9Ar  PROCESSES  SPECIAL   TO  ANGLE-BARS.      75 

series  of  partial  deformations   before    arriving  at  the   final 
form  ;  too  great  local  elongations  should  also  be  avoided. 

These  precautions,  the  necessity  of  which  was  soon  felt, 
were  observed  in  case  of  most  of  the  angle-bars,  and  were 
sufficient  to  prevent  rupture  in  pieces  that  were  not  hammer- 
ed. 

For  angle  bars  extremely  opened  or  closed,  and  bent  to  suit 
the  extremities  of  the  ships,  it  was  indispensable  to  obviate 
the  causes  of  weakness  just  pointed  out.  With  this  aim  in 
view  several  processes  were  used. 

The  angle-bars  were  first  subjected  to  a  portion  of  their 
total  deformation  ;  then  they  were  annealed  in  a  plate-iron 
oven  heated  with  wood.  The  oven  and  its  contents  having 
reached  the  desired  temperature,  all  the  orifices  through 
which  air  might  enter  were  closed,  and  the  whole  was  left  to 
cool  completely.  The  angle-bars,  after  having  been  thus  heat- 
ed to  cherry-red,  became  malleable  again  and  were  easily 
worked  ;  this  change  was  much  noticed  by  the  men  who  worked 
the  presses.  The  pieces  could  then  be  subjected  without 
fear  to  renewed  bending  and  change  of  angle,  which  having 
reached  a  certain  point,  were  followed  by  a  new  annealing, 
and  so  on,  until  the  desired  form  was  obtained.  Annealing 
at  cherry-red  does  not  deform  the  angle-bar  as  much  as 
might  be  supposed.  At  this  temperature,  the  metal  retains  a 
certain  rigidity  ;  it  warps  but  little  under  the  last  heating, 
and  may,  by  slight  bending,  be  restored  to  its  exact  form. 

While  operations  by  this  method  were  taking  place,  a  cer 
tain  number  of  pretty  strong  angle  irons,  4.68"  x  4.68"  x 
0.55"  for  instance,  were  worked  by  another  process,  using, 
forge  fires.  The  blacksmiths  intrusted  at  first  with  this  work, 
wanted  to  treat  them  like  ordinary  iron,  and  frequently  ne- 
glected the  recommended  precautions  ;  a  few  cases  of  rupture 
were  observed.  These  men  were  replaced  by  carpenters  in- 
experienced in  taking  care  of  a  fire  and  disposed  to  pay  the 
greatest  attention  to  the  instructions  they  received.  They 


76  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

completely  succeeded  without  accident,  in  bringing  the  bars  to 
the  desired  form.  These  pieces  were  heated  with  charcoal  in 
a  common  forge  fire  with  a  tuyere.  The  fire  was  bright  at  the 
point  where  the  most  heat  was  needed  ;  but,  in  the  angle  of  the 
bar,  burning  coals  were  distributed,  growing  fewer  as  they  got 
further  from  the  point  heated  the  most.  The  bar  was  thus 
heated  on  a  great  length,  and  this  heat  gradually  lost  itself 
either  way  from  the  point  subjected  to  the  direct  action  of  the 
forge  fire.  The  angle-bar,  brought  to  the  desired  tempera- 
ture,-was  curved  and  changed  in  angle  by  bending — avoiding 
hammering,  wherever  possible.  As  the  operation  was  done  by 
successive  heats,  the  points  which,  previously,  were  indispensa- 
bly hammered,  found  themselves  at  the  following  heat,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  hottest  point,  and  were  so  much  heated 
that,  upon  cooling,  the  carbon  separated  from  the  solution,  as 
in  the  other  parts  of  the  metal.  As  a  further  precaution, 
after  the  forge  work,  the  angle-bars  were  annealed  over  their 
whole  length  in  the  temporary  oven  mentioned  above. 

This  last  method  gave  good  results ;  but  it  was  slow  and 
expensive :  it  was  abandoned  as  soon  as  a  Siemens  furnace  in 
the  iron  ship  yard  was  fired.  The-angle  bars  requiring  curv- 
ing and  change  of  angle,  were  then  shaped  on  curving  plates 
after  a  general  heating  in  this  furnace.  They  were,  in  this 
case,  heated  to  a  cherry-red,  and  bent  with  crowbars  and 
levers  ;  they  were  thus  brought  in  one  or  two  heats  to  the  re- 
quired form.  This  form  was  traced  on  the  plate  in  the  ordi- 
nary manner  with  pins  more  or  less  bent  according  to  the 
opening  of  the  angle.  A  sheet  iron  band  a  b  bearing  on  these 
pins  (fig.  55  and  56)  gave  exactly  the  outline  of  the  flange  nearer 
to  the  vertical ;  the  other  flange  rested  on  the  plate.  Care  was 
taken  to  hammer  the  angle-bar  only  when  red-hot,  and  a  less 
temperature  was  employed  only  in  case  of  manipulations  less 
liable  than  hammering  to  alter  its  structure.  At  first  the  curving 
was  done  without  using  the  band  a  b  •  but  the  pins  left  their 
print  on  the  flange  of  the  iron  which  bore  on  them,  and  there 


ON  PROCESSES  SPECIAL  TO  ANGLE-BARS. 


77 


appeared  a  series  of  local  projections  which  the  workmen 
always  tried  to  hammer  down  when  the  piece  was  cold,  thus 
sometimes  causing  rupture.  •  It  was  recommended  to  the 
workmen  to  use  mainly  levers  and  wooden  mallets,  and  to 
work  the  bars  when  red ;  however,  when  deformities  were 
observed  at  a  lower  temperature,  hammering  was  admitted  by 
using  wide  surfaced  flatting  tools  which  distributed  the  blow 
of  the  hammer. 

After  these  manipulations,  the  angle-bars  were  put  for  the 


last  time  into  the  furnace  ;  this  was  for  annealing,  and  they 
were  left  to  cool  on  the  curving  plates.  Care  was  taken  then 
not  to  make  them  undergo  any  work,  except  the  slight  bring- 
ing to  shape  they  might  need,  and  even  this  was  done  with 
wooden  mallets.  Annealing  destroyed  the  injurious  effects 
of  all  the  hammering.  The  use  of  the  ordinary  hammer  was 
forbidden  only  to  prevent  breaking  while  working  ;  but  a  bar 
formed  without  this  precaution,  and  luckily  not  broken,  would 
find  itself,  after  annealing,  in  very  good  condition. 


78  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

At  a  cherry-red,  the  temperature  of  annealing,  the  angle- 
bars  could  be  taken  out  of  the  furnace  without  losing  their 
form.  It  was  sufficient  to  sustain  them  at  several  tolerably 
close  points  and  carry  them  to  the  curving  plates.  We 
hesitated  at  first  about  cooling  them  on  a  metallic  surface — a 
good  conductor  of  heat — but  it  was  ascertained  that  cooling 
took  place  very  slowly ;  4.68"  x  4.68"  x  o-55"  bars  took  about 
two  hours  to  return  to  the  surrounding  temperature.  With 
the  small  thickness  of  metal  in  angle-bars,  as  in  plates,  such 
cooling  seems  amply  sufficient  to  avoid  the  effects  of  tempering  ; 
but  if  they  should  manifest  themselves,  there  would  be  no 
great  damage,  since  they  would  occur  regularly  over  the 
whole  piece.  What  must  be  avoided  above  all,  with  reference 
to  subsequent  manipulations,  is  local  tempering  which  puts 
two  neighboring  points  of  the  metal  in  dangerous  conditions 
of  resistance. 

These  angle  bars,  manipulated  while  hot,  were  afterwards 
rapidly  brought  to  their  form  by  presses,  and  we  were  able  to 
ascertain,  by  the  effort  required  for  deformation,  that  the  metal 
was  as  soft  as  in  the  original  state. 

If  the  curve  of  the  finished  angle  bars  was  too  considera- 
ble, and  the  bars  too  long  to  be  put  into  the  furnace,  the  an- 
nealing was  applied  in  two  heats,  one  at  each  extremity,  tak- 
ing care,  in  the  second  heat,  to  put  in  the  fire  every  part  that 
had  not  been  put  there  before.  Sometimes  the  angle  bar  was 
curved  so  as  to  go  into  the  furnace  whole,  and  the  final  curv- 
ing was  done  in  the  press  when  cold. 

This  mode  of  working  with  the  furnace  has  been  more  or 
less  modified ;  often  changing  the  angle  was  done  in  the 
punching  machine  ;  but  the  principle  of  the  method  has  always 
been  the  same.* 

*  Towards  the  close  of  the  ship  building  at  L'Orient,  when  the  work- 
men were  well  practiced,  6560  feet  of  angle-bars  were  worked  cold  and 
2624  feet  hot ;  9  bars  only  were  broken,  4  cold  and  5  hot ;  in  both  cases 
the  bars  were  annealed  as  a  last  operation. 


ON  PROCESSES  SPECIAL  TO  ANGLE-BARS.      79 

Besides  these  processes  of  general  deformation  to  which 
most  angle-bars  were  subjected,  a  certain  number  among  them 
had  to  form  shoulders  and  knees,  at  right,  acute  or  obtuse 


angles.     The  shoulders  were  formed  by  heating  the  required 
parts  in  a  forge  fire  ;  care  was  taken  to  hammer  the  metal  only 
when  red  hot,  and  after  this  operation  the  bent  part  was  an- 
nealed.       The     heating     of 
angles  over  a  portion  of  their 
length  is  not  inconvenient,  if 
the   temperature   is   even   on 
the  whole  width  of  the  flanges, 

since  expansion  can  take  place  without  difficulty ;  it 
would  not  be  so  with  the  local  heating  of  a  flange, 
which  would  involve  all  the  defects  pointed  out  for 
the  local  heating  of  plates. 

To  bend  angle  bars  to  forms  more  or  less  approach- 
ing 90°  it  was  at  first  tried  to  operate  as  with  iron 
angle-bars  by  cutting  out  of  the  flange  to  be  welded  a  tri- 
angle a,  I,  c,  (fig.  57),  the  lips  of  which  a,  fr,  and  £,  c  were 
thinned  out :  the  bar  was  bent  (fig.  58)  so  as  to  bring  the  two 
lips  together,  and  these  were  then  subjected  to  a  welding 
heat.  This  operation  was  done  with  difficulty;  on  10  trials, 
3  missed,  while  the  others  were  far  from  being  perfect. 

Better  results  were  attained  by  another  method  :     A  tri- 


59 

angle  a,  by  c,  was  cut  out  from  the  bar  the  angle  of  which  tf 
(fig.  59),  was  more  opened  than  in  the  preceding  case  (fig.  58), 


So 


THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 


so  that  after  the  bending  of  the  flange,  the  thinned  out  edges 
did  not  touch  (figs.  60  and  61).  A  small  piece  of  wedge-shaped 
iron  was  placed  between  the  two  lips.  The  whole,  being  heat- 
ed tq  a  sufficient  temperature,  was  hammered ;  the  piece  of 


>g 

,',\s 
/  or 


60. 


i    i 


61.    Section  A  B, 


iron  was  welded  to  the  lips  a'  b ',  V  c',  and  a  good  weld,  offer- 
ing great  resistance  to  the  opening  of  the  knee,  was  obtained. 

The  bars  formed  in  this  manner  were  annealed,  as  were 
all  those  which  had  to  undergo  a  forge  fire.  It  must  be  no- 
ticed that  the  two  parts  of  the  bar  joined  by  an  iron  piece  can 
have  only  the  resistance  of  iron  to  rupture,  supposing  the 
weld  to  be  as  perfect  as  possible.  In  order  to  establish  a  more 
complete  homogeneity,  it  would  be  necessary  to  subject  the 
angle-bar  to  a  series  of  annealings,  or  to  a  prolonged  one  j 
but  then  the  same  phenomena  observed  in  any  piece  of  iron 
subjected  to  too  many  heats  without  drawing  out  would  oc- 
cur ;  the  fibrous  texture  would  be  altered  and  replaced  by  a 
crystalline  texture ;  the  steel  would  approach  the  state  in 
which  it  is  when  it  has  just  been  cast. 

In  the  construction  of  boilers,  the  knees  having  almost  al- 
ways more  resistance  than  necessary,  the  welding  of  angle- 


ON  PROCESSES  SPECIAL  TO  ANGLE-BARS.       81 

bars  by  the  interposition  of  an  iron  piece  will  generally  furnish 
a  sufficient  solidity  and  the  certainty  of  good  calking. 

In  the  construction   of  ships,  angle-bars  bent  to  90°  are 


generally  joined  by  plates  the  resistance  of  which  would  be 
but  little  increased  by  the  use  of  welded  angle-bars.  There- 
fore, in  case  of  the  bars  used  at  L'Orient,  whenever  they  were 
not  destined  for  water-tight  places,  we  were  content  to  cut  a  tri- 
angle as  for  welding  and  the  two  edges  of  the  cut  were  then 
brought  together  by  bending  ;  the  untouched  flange  preserved 
thus  a  great  part  of  its  value  (fig.  62). 

In  the  case  where  the  angle-bar  was  to  be  calked,  a  56° 
triangle  was  cut  out  approximately  correctly  by  the  angle-iron 
shears,  the  two  ends  were  then  dressed  with  a  chisel  and  file  ; 
after  riveting,  the  joint  n,  /  (fig.  63),  was  carefully  calked. 
Thus  a  satisfactory  result  was  reached  in  an  evidently  eco- 
nomical manner. 

If  it  had  been  necessary  to  form  a  complete  frame  of  an- 
gles, the  4  sides  should  have  been  carefully  fitted  in  a  forge 
fire,  thus  necessitating  many  after-touches. 

These  processes  were  used  also  for  obtuse  or  slightly  acute 
angles ;  for  those  the  acuteness  of  which  was  very  decided, 
welding  was  resorted  to  in  consequence  of  the  difficulties 
encountered  in  calking.  It  was  observed  from  the  difficulties 
experienced  in  welding  the  lips  of  the  bent  angles  directly, 
4*  6 


82  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

that  the  metal  furnished  by  Creusot  was  not  very  well,  adapted 
to  welding  under  these  circumstances ;  a  fortiori  the  Terre- 
Noire  metal  should  be  similar. 

But  when  welding  can  be  done  on  a  considerable  sur- 
face it  succeeds  perfectly.  We  tried  to  utilize  the  cut- 
tings of  Terre-Noir  plates  by  making  them  into  piles  and  rolling 
them.  Small  pieces  for  machinery  were  thus  made,  among 
others  a  shaft  about  3. 14"  in  diameter,  which  was  very  sound, 
and  received  a  very  fine  polish.  Trial  bars  made  with  steel 
plates  piled  and  rolled  together  and  well  annealed,  before  being 
broken,  gave  an  average  resistance  of  27.28  tons  per  inch,  and 
an  average  elongation  of  25  per  cent.  Other  bars  obtained  in 
the  same  manner,  but  tempered,  gave  a  resistance  of  38.58  tons 
with  10  percent,  elongation.  We  were  also  able  by  rolling  in 
the  same  manner  steel  plate  cuttings,  to  manufacture  armor 
plate  bolts  3.14  inch  in  diameter,  which  resisted  well  the  shock 
of  cannon  balls.  These  results  prove  that  cast  metal  welds 
on  a  large  surface,  at  least  within  the  limits  we  have  experi- 
mented upon. 

All  the  angles  worked  up  according  to  the  principles  explain- 
ed in  this  chapter,  came,  as  we  said  before,  from  Creusot,  and 
belonged  to  the  category  of  least  steely  materials  employed. 
Had  they  been  manufactured  from  Terre-Noire  metal,  it  is  prob- 
able that  more  care  would  have  been  required  during  the  work, 
and  that  none  of  the  indicated  precautions  should  have  been 
neglected. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

ON    PROCESSES  SPECIAL  TO  I  BEAMS. 

THE  I  beams  manufactured  by  Messrs.  Marrel  Bros.,  at 
Rive-de-Gier,  from  Terre-Noire  steels,  received  two  changes 
of  form  :  ist,  some  of  them  were  employed  for  deck-beams  : 


each  end   had  to  be  split,  and  one  of   the  branches  curved  on 
the   arc  of   a   circle,  to  4.92    feet  radius  (fig.  64).    From  the 


84 


THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 


terms  of  the  contract  made  with  Messrs.  Marrel,  the  I  beams 
were  to  stand  the  operation  while  hot,  this  being  the  condition 
of  acceptance.  2d.  The  other  beams  formed  the  ribs  or  frames 
of  the  plated  parts  of  the  ship  ;  in  certain  cases  they  were  to 
be  curved,  and  in  others  their  flanges  were  to  be  inclined  in 
relation  to  the  web  ;  thus  the  original  profile  ;#,  n,  b,  d,  (fig.  65) 
was  to  be  brought  to  m,'  «,'  bj  d,'  (fig.  66). 

For  the  first  set  of  I  bars  forming  the  deck  beams,  the  web 
was  to  be  split  and  one  of  the  flanges  bent. 

The  ease  with  which  angles  had  been  worked  cold,  called 
attention  to  the  possibility  of  curving  the  beams  without 
heating  them.  In  order  to  obtain  the  longitudinal  slit,  a  hole 


66. 


was  drilled  to  limit  this  slit ;  then  a  cut  was  made  by  a  planer. 
The  beam  was  then  placed  on  curving  plates,  where  a  strong 
angle-iron  A  B  (fig.  67),  forming  the  arc  of  the  circle  the  flange 
was  to  conform  to,  had  been  previously  fixed.  A  strong  block 
C,  held  the  extremity  of  the  split  beam.  A  lever  E  F,  made 
from  a  long  I  beam,  fixed  at  one  end  and  subjected  at  the 
other  to  sufficient  tension,  furnished  the  necessary  power  to 
effect  the  deformation ;  its  action  was  transmitted  to  the 
beam  by  a  wooden  block  placed  near  the  beginning  of  the 
cut. 

Out  of  15  I  beams  treated  under  these  conditions,  12  stood 


ON  PROCESSES  SPECIAL  TO  I  BEAMS.  85 

the  work  very  well ;  3  broke  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
operation  near  the  beginning  of  the  cut.  On  all  these  beams 
an  elongation  of  about  8  per  cent,  was  observed  on  the  convex 
side  of  the  web  ;  the  flange  which  was  bent  showed  but  an 
insignificant  compression  of  a  few  millimeters.  It  was  found, 
besides,  that  the  elongation  of  the  fibres  was  obviously  more 
important  in  the  half  nearer  the  beginning  of  the  cut  than  in 
the  other  half. 

Trial  bars  cut  out  from   different  parts  of  the  web  and 


Fig.  67. 


flange  gave  about  the  same  resistance  to  rupture  as  the  beams 
in  the  natural  state,     The  pressure  on  the  compressed   flange 


86 


THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 


was  therefore  insufficient  to  produce  any  appreciable  difference  ; 
the  elongation  was  still  at  least  17  per  cent.  It  must  be 
noticed  that  the  test  bars  could  not  contain  the  fibres  near 
the  convex  edge  of  the  web  which  had  stretched  most ;  they 
were  cut  as  near  to  this  region  as  possible  and  we  may 
conclude  with  certainty  that  the  fibres  of  the  edge  tried  alone 
would  have  given  an  average  elongation  or  1 4  per  cent. 

As  none  of  the  phenomena  due  to  tempering  were  produc- 
ed by  this  flexure,  the  fibers  retained  nearly  all  their  constitu- 
tional homogeneity ;  it  is  presumable  that  the  ruptures  were 
caused  by  the  increase  of  work  which  the  parts  around  the  be- 
ginning of  the  cut  had  to  perform  during  the  latter  part  of  the 


Fig.  63. 


operation.     For  it  will  be  understood  that  these  parts  were  sub- 
jected during  the  whole  operation,  to  an  effort  of  flexure,  and 


ON  PROCESSES  SPECIAL  TO  I  BEAMS.          87 

they  must  have  stretched  more  than  those  bearing  this  effort 
during  a  much  shorter  time.  Besides,  in  the  last  period  of 
curving,  the  parts  near  the  beginning  of  the  cut  may  have 
stretched  much  more  within  a  short  distance  if  the  metal  rested 
more  at  certain  points  than  at  others. 

After  these  first  trials,  a  new  outline  was  adopted  (fig.  68). 
The  cut  was  continued  5.85  inches  beyond  the  spring  of  the 
curve.  This  modification  alone  should,  probably,  have  been 
sufficient  to  avoid  the  ruptures  which  had  previously  taken 
place  ;  but,  for  more  security,  the  slit  which  origianally  was  in 
the  middle  of  the  web,  was  lowered,  so  as  to  reduce  to  4.29 
inches  the  height  of  the  portion  to  be  bent.  Under  these  con- 
ditions the  heels  could  be  turned  without  accident.* 

The  three  beams  worked  up  according  to  the  original  pat- 
tern and  broken  in  the  operation,  were  annealed,  and  the  half 
of  the  web  near  the  broken  part  which  had  suffered  no  defor- 
mation was  curved  to  this  same  pattern  again ;  two  beams 
were  brought  to  the  required  form,  the  third  one  breaking 
again.  This  experiment  proves  that  annealing  may  notably 
improve  the  qualities  of  beams  in  the  state  in  which  they  are 
furnished  by  manufacturers  ;  they  are,  in  fact,  by  the  last  pass 
in  the  rolls,  subjected  to  molecular  tensions  of  considerable  im- 
portance, when  the  rolling  is  finished  at  a  temperature  below 
red. 

The  annealing  of  beams,  in  order  to  be  perfect,  demands 
very  slow  cooling,  on  account  of  the  varying  thickness  of  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  section  ;  nevertheless  the  metal  in  the  thick- 
est part  is  still  thin  enough  to  cool  safely  in  the  open  air. 
I  beams  heated  in  a  Siemens  furnace  and  left  on  curving  plates 
return  to  the  surrounding  temperature  only  after  several  hours, 
and  no  inequalites  in  hardness  or  resistance  worth  noticing,  in 
their  different  parts,  were  ever  observed. 

*  More  than  150  beams  of  this  pattern  have  been  bent  at  the  time  of 
writing  The  elongation  of  the  convex  part  was  found  to  be  about  6  per 
cent,  and  the  5.85  inches  added  to  the  cut  showed  a  notable  elongation. 


88  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

However,  the  slowness  of  cooling  is  more  important  than 
with  plates  and  angles  of  small  thickness.  For  in  fact,  it  was 
noticed  that  the  two  parts  of  a  beam  cut  in  a  planer  tore 
apart  with  a  noise,  when  the  thickness  of  the  metal  remaining 
to  be  removed  was  very  small ;  and  each  portion  of  the  web 
was  bent  to  a  curve,  the  convex  side  of  v/hich  was  toward  the 
cut.  The  same  phenomenon  is  observed  in  iron  beams ;  it 
evidently  results  from  the  fact  that  the  thin  web,  subjected 
to  a  more  rapid  cooling  than  the  flanges,  is  compelled  to  stretch 
at  the  expense  of  its  elasticity.  When  the  flanges  contract  in 
their  turn  as  they  cool,  this  contraction  cannot  be  complete  on 
account  of  the  elongation  of  the  web ;  their  fibres  are  subject- 
ed to  tension  that  does  not  exceed  their  elastic  limit.  When 
the  web  is  split  longitudinally,  this  tension  being  no  longer 
balanced,  produces  the  observed  curvature. 

Beams  heated  in  a  gas  furnace  and  left  to  cool  in  the  open 
air,  behave  when  they  are  split,  in  the  same  manner  as  those 
just  out  of  the  rolls  without  any  subsequent  heating ;  the  in- 
ternal tensions  observed  in  splitting  the  webs  of  these  beams 
are  therefore  not  to  be  attributed  to  the  action  of  the  rolls. 
On  the  other  hand  it  has  been  observed  that  beams  when 
heated,  split,  and  bent  cold,  are  more  easily  subjected  to  this 
sort  of  work  than  those  coming  directly  from  the  manufactory. 
The  force  applied  to  bring  them  to  the  required  deformation 
is  obviously  less.  It  is  then  probable  that  simple  heating  re- 
stores to  I  beams  a  portion  of  the  softness  they  lose  in  the 
last  period  of  rolling.  The  metal  after  annealing  is  yet  sub- 
ject to  a  few  internal  tensions  arising  from  the  inequality  of 
cooling,  but  these  are  weak  and  hardly  worth  noticing  in  prac- 
tice. 

Another  series  of  I  beams  had  to  be  curved  and  the 
angles  of  their  flanges  changed.  These  operations  could  be 
done  cold,  but  they  were  mostly  done  hot.  As  cold  treatment 
can  furnish  some  explanations  of  the  deformations  soft  steel 
can  endure,  we  will  describe  the  processes  that  were  tried, 


ON  PROCESSES  SPECIAL  TO  I  BEAMS. 


89 


although  some  of  them  have  defects  which  should  prevent 
their  use  on  a  large  scale. 

In  order  to  form  a  curve,  the  hydraulic  press  was  fitted 
with  the  apparatus  represented  by  figs.  69  and  69' — two  dies 
fixed  on  the  press  exhibited,  one  convex  the  other  concave, 
the  curvature  the  greater  part  of  the  beams  was  to  follow. 
Adding  a  few  blocks  allowed  a  slight  change  in  these  curva 
tures.  The  webs  were  held  transversely  by  guides  which  pre- 
vented them  from  bending  over  laterally.  In  the  first  trials,  it 
was  ascertained  that  the  beams  as  a  whole  reached  the  required 
curvature  well  enough,  but  the  webs,  on  account  of  their  small 
thickness,  buckled  under  the  effort  of  compression  they  had  to 
bear.  We  then  operated  by  transmitting  the  compression  to 
the  beam  through  a  piece  A  (fig.  70),  which,  by  embracing  the 


Fig.  69. 


69'—  Section  A  B. 


web  all  around,  prevented  its  buckling.  The  beam  resting  on 
two  points  on  the  lower  die  of  the  press,  the  upper  end  of  the 
piece  A  was  compressed  by  the  upper  die  ;  after  having  ob- 


Fig.  70. 


tained  the  required  deformation,  the  piece  was  moved  along 


9° 


THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 


to  subject  another  part  to  the  same  operation.  By  working 
on  small  lengths,  and  with  caution,  we  were  able  to  attain 
good  results  and  regular  curves.  This  process  was  applied 
only  to  pieces  with  right-angled  flanges  left  unchanged.  To 
remedy  all  defects,  the  operation  should  be  followed  by  an- 
nealing. A  few  cases  of  rupture  having  occurred,  this  mode  of 
working  was  abandoned,  as  soon  as  we  were  able  to  execute 
bending  in  the  furnace. 

Two  processes  were  used  to  change  the  angles  of  the 
flanges : 

The  punching  machine,  as  employed  to  do  the  same  thing 
to  angle-bars,  was  first  tried,  the  die  and  punch  were  replaced 
by  the  pieces  A,  B  (fig.  71).  The  punch  A,  in  going  down, 


Fig.  71. 


produced  a  flexure  of  the  web  around  the  point  of  its  junction 
with  the  flanges  ;  by  operating  a  little  at  a  time  and  taking  care 
to  hold  the  flange  in  the  groove  of  the  piece  B,  the  beams 


ON  PROCESSES  SPECIAL  TO  I  BEAMS. 


91 


were  thus  shaped  throughout  their  whole  length.  By  vary- 
ing the  blocks,  different  angles  were  obtained  at  sucessive 
operations.  One  flange  being  shaped,  the  other  was  treated 
in  the  same  manner.  For  more  decided  angles,  the  pieces  A 
and  B  were  replaced  by  others  which  were  manipulated  like 
the  preceding  ones. 

This  process  required,  in  order  to  succeed,  that  the  beam 
should  be  sustained  at  each  end  on  blocking  of  suitable 
height,  and  also  well  held  in  the  groove  of  the  piece  B  ;  if 
these  precautions  were  neglected,  the  effect  of  deformation  bore 
on  the  flange  that  was  being  bent  instead  of  acting  exclu- 
sively on  the  web.  As  the  modified  punching  machine  was 
often  engaged  in  this  kind  of  work  on  angles,  this  method  was 
little  used  for  beams. 

We  also  tried  to  change  the  angles  of  I  beams  in  the 
hydraulic  press  with  the  apparatus  fig.  72 — two  dies  fixed  in 


Fig.  72. 


each  jaw  of  the  press  presented  two  inclined  planes  on  which 
the  beam  flanges  were  to  bear  after  the  proper  bending. 
Larteral  sliding  of  the  beam  was  prevented  by  flanges  on  the 


r«  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

> 

machine  ;  and  cast  iron  plates  placed  on  each  side  and  joined 
by  a  few  bolts,  opposed  any  flexure  in  the  web.  Blocks  of 
different  heights  interposed  between  the  flanges  and  the  dies 
allowed  a  variation  in  the  change  of  angle. 

The  I  beams  were  thus  brought  more  regularly  to  their 
form  than  by  the  first  mentioned  process,  yet  in  both  cases,  the 
web  exhibited  a  rather  irregular  section,  exaggerated  in  fig.  72. 
The  turning  over  of  the  flanges,  instead  of  taking  effect  at 
their  junction  point  with  the  web,  pulled  out  of  shape  the 
portion  of  the  web  near  the  angle.  It  was  necessary  to  heat 
and  hammer  the  beam,  to  straighten  the  web  •  in  consequence 
of  this,  working  hot  altogether  was  preferred  in  most  cases. 

Curving  hot  was  effected  on  curving  plates,  generally  by 
the  process  used  in  bending  angles  and  indicated  above  (fig. 
55  and  56).  The  outline  of  the  piece  was  defined  by  pins 
put  in  holes  in  the  plate  ;  a  sheet  iron  band  bearing  on  the 
pins  insured  a  continuity  of  contour.  The  I  beam,  heated  in 
a  Siemens  furnace,  was  made  to  bear  on  the  pins  by  blows  of 


Fig.  74- 


a  wooden  mallet,  or  by  the  use  of  anchor  levers  (fig.  73)  ;  the 
web  was  kept  from  warping  by  hammering  with  a  mallet.     If 


ON  PROCESSES  SPECIAL  TO  I  BEAMS.  93 

the  operation  was  finished  when  the  piece  was  red,  even  when 
iron  hammers  were  used,  annealing,  from  what  we  have  seen 
before,  could  be  dispensed  with.  But  several  heats  were  often 
necessary  to  arrive  at  the  required  curvature  ;  it  was  preferable 
to  heat  the  piece  several  times  rather  than  to  expose  it  to 
cold  hammering,  which  might  have  been  dangerous.  However, 
as  sometimes  it  was  impossible  to  dispense  with  a  few  hammer 
blows,  it  was  made  a  rule  that  the  beams  were  to  be  put  back 
into  the  fire  and  get  to  a  cherry-red  heat,  for  a  final  annealing. 

A  great  many  beams  were  to  be  brought  to  the  same 
curvature  ;  this  was  done  by  the  apparatus  represented  by  fig. 
74,  in  which  the  beam  was  subjected  on  its  two  flanges  to 
the  pressure  of  a  strong  lever  L,  each  flange  being  comprised 
between  two  pieces,  A  B  and  C  D,  having  the  required  curvature. 

Altering  the  angles  of  hot  beams  could  have  been  perform- 
ed in  several  heats  by  hammering  each  portion  of  the  two 
wings,  but  it  was  preferred  to  accomplish  it  in  two  heats  ; 
with  this  in  view,  the  heated  beam  was  brought  between  two 
straight  pieces  having  the  desired  inclination  (fig.  75)  ;  one  of 


Fig.  75- 

these  was  formed  by  a  plate-band  resting  on  the  pins,  the  other 
consisted  of  an  I  beam  furnished  with  wedges  that  could  be 
varied.  Another  plate-band  covered  these  wedges  and  formed 
a  continuous  surface  of  the  required  inclination.  The  beam  be- 


94  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

ing  placed  in  the  space  a  b  the  piece  £,  was  tightly  pressed  by 
the  lever,  which  brought  it  nearer  the  contour  a  ;  the  flanges 
that  were  to  form  acute  angles  were  compelled  to  bend. 

The  part  c  of  the  web,  which  was  to  form  an  obtuse  angle, 
was  brought  by  hammering  to  lie  on  the  plate  a.  The  beam 
was  then  reheated  and  put  back  in  the  machine,  but  turned 
over,  so  as  to  open  the  part  d,  of  the  second  flange  and  bend  it 
to  an  obtuse  angle.  In  a  third  heat  the  beam  was  brought  to  a 
cherry-red  and  was  left  to  cool,  without  any  manipulation. 
The  beams  treated  were  first  subjected  to  change  of  angle  as 
if  they  had  been  straight.  At  the  next  heat,  they  were  bent 
according  to  a  determined  pattern,  by  a  plate-band  resting  on 
pins  bent  at  an  angle. 

These  manipulations  while  hot  gave  no  difficulty  or  special 
phenomena,  on  accout  of  the  precaution  we  took  to  anneal  all 
the  beams. * 

We  were  able,  by  successive  heats  to  bring  these  beams  to 
very  considerable  curvatures — to  fig.  76,  for  instance. 

The  considerable  elongation  which  soft  steel,  well  worked 
and  homogeneous,  can  bear  before  breaking,  renders  it  em- 
inently fit  to  receive  shocks  or  blows.  To  verify  this  fact,  a 
few  experiments  were  made  with  steel  I  beams,  and  others  of 
iron,  both  of  the  same  dimensions.  The  beams  bore  at  each 
extremity  on  anvils  about  2.62  ft.  apart,  and  were  laid  flat,  so 
as  to  rest  on  the  edges  of  the  two  flanges  ;  they  were  subject- 
ed to  the  blow  of  a  2970  Ibs.  ram  falling  from  different  heights. 
As  the  extremity  of  the  ram  was  pretty  sharp,  a  little  wooden 
block  resting  on  the  beam  bore  the  first  effect  of  the  blow. 

The  two  iron  beams  tried  under  these  conditions  were 
broken,  one  under  a  fall  of  32.8  ft.,  and  the  other  under  a  fall 
of  16.4  ft. ;  they  were  in  each  case  completely  broken,  and  a 
few  fragments  were  detached.  By  uniting  the  parts  of  same 

*  More  than  400  I  beams  were  brought  to  the  required  shape  without 
any  rupture. 


ON  PROCESSES  SPECIAL  TO  I  BEAMS.  95 

beam,  it  was  noticed  that  deformation  before  rupture  must 
have  been  very  small. 

Two  steel  beams  in  their  natural  state,  that  is  to  say  such 
as  delivered  by  the  manufacturer,  when  subjected  to  a  32.8  ft. 


Fig.  76. 

fall  of  the  ram,  showed  no  trace  of  cracking,  the  metal  was 
flattened  in  a  remarkable  manner ;  fig.  77  represents  one  of 
them.  In  the  section  the  bending  over  of  the  flanges  in  the 
most  deformed  parts  can  be  seen.  Another  steel  beam  sub- 
jected to  a  49.2  ft.  fall  was  broken  in  two,  but  after  having 
undergone  a  great  deformation,  no  fragment  was  detached. 

Farther  experiments  were  made  by  placing  the  web  in  a 
vertical  position  ;  they  gave  results  similar  to  the  preceding 
ones,  but  a  little  less  defined  on  account  of  the  difficulty  ex- 
perienced in  keeping  the  beams  in  position  transversely. 

These  experiments  showed  the  state  of  the  metal  after  the 
different  processes  the  beams  had  been  subjected  to. 

We  were  frequently  led  to  heat  long  beams  on  a  part  of 
their  length  only ;  the  temperature  being  nearly  even  in  the 
same  transverse  section,  there  should  exist,  after  cooling,  only 
slight  pressure.  Yet  the  thicknes  not  being  constant,  it  be- 
came necessary  to  test  the  softness  of  the  steel  at  the  point 
separating  the  heated  from  the  unheated  part.  With  this  aim 
in  view,  beams  were  raised  to  cherry-red  on  half  of  their  length, 
and  left  to  cool  on  the  plates  :  they  were  then  placed  on  two 
anvils  2.62  ft.  apart  so  as  to  bring  the  web  in  horizontal  posi- 


96 


THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 


tion.  The  2970  Ib.  ram  falling  32.8  ft.  at  the  point  of  demarc- 
ation, produced  the  deformation  fig.  77,  without  any  cracks. 
This  experiment  made  on  two  beams  which  gave  the  same 
flexure  within  ^  inch,  is  very  conclusive,  and  proves  that 


Fig.  77. 

I  beams  can  be  heated  in  a  furnace  on  part  of  their  length 
without  any  damage. 

We  also  investigated  the  influence  a  certain  number  of 
cherry-red  heats  might  have  on  the  fibrous  texture  of  I  beams. 
Two  beams  underwent  10  heats  under  these  conditions  ;  when 
taken  out  of  the  furnace  they  were  left  to  cool  without  any 
manipulation  ;  in  trying  them  with  the  ram  as  in  the  preced- 
ing case,  the  deformation  obtained  was  nearly  identical  with 
fig.  77'  •  no  crack  was  observed.  The  beams  used  in  prac- 
tice never  had  such  a  great  number  of  heats  ;  they  did  not  ob- 


' 


o 


ON  PROCESSES  SPECIAL  TO  I  BEAMS. 


.he. 


viously  by  these  repeated  heats,  lose  any  appreciable 
of  their  elasticity. 

Other  experiments  by  blows  were  recently  made  to  test 
effect  of  hammering  and  annealing  on  I  beams.  Four  beams 
had  their  flanges  turned  over  on  a  short  radius,  by  the  process 
just  explained,  using  the  hammer  and  the  lever.  The  work 


A  / 


Fig.  77- 

was  the  same  for  all ;  but  two  of  them  were  annealed ;  the 
four  wqyre  then  subjected  to  the  blow  of  the  ram  falling  49  ft. 
The  two  annealed  beams  were  bent  without  breaking  in  a  very 
remarkable  manner,  about  as  much  as  fig.  77,  and  much  more 
than  the  beams  in  the  natural  state  (fig.  77).  The  two  unan- 
nealed  beams  were,  on  the  contrary,  broken  into  several  pieces 
before  undergoing  any  appreciable  deformation,  thus  showing 
that  the  metal  was  very  brittle. 

This  result  is  a  complete  commentary  on  the  facts  relating 
to  hammering  explained  above. 

These  observations  evidently  prove  the  advantage  of  us- 
ing soft  steel  to  resist  a  shock  or  blow,  when  no  difficulty  in 
manufacturing  or  working  up  is  to  be  encountered.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  will  be  seen  from  the  results  obtained  with 
beams  heated  several  times  or  on  a  portion  of  their  length, 
that  in  most  cases,  the  work  can  be  done  with  the  same  fa- 
cility as  with  iron.  Cannon  practice  on  armor-plated  targets, 
leading  to  the  substitution  of  "cast  metal "  or  soft  steel  plates, 
5  7 


98  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

angles  and  I  beams,  for  those  of  wrought  iron,  fully  justified 
the  conclusions  drawn  from  the  preceding  experiments.  The 
metal  was,  in  most  cases,  bent  and  twisted  without  breaking 
in  any  way  except  to  allow  the  passage  of  the  projectile.  The 
fragments  were  not  more  than  one-third  as  large  as  those 
given  by  iron  under  the  same  circumstances.  In  case  of  all  the 
materials  used  in  these  targets,  care  was  taken  to  subject  them 
to  a  cherry-red  heat,  and  let  them  cool  in  the  open  air  on  a 
homogeneous  surface  of  cast  iron  plates. 

Results  of  the  same  kind,  relatively  to  blows,  would  have 
been  obtained  with  very  soft  materials  by  tempering  them 
instead  of  annealing  them.  For  it  has  been  seen  that  temper- 
ing, like  annealing,  causes  the  inequalities  of  treatment  to 
disappear,  and  gives  homogeneous  products.  But  this  result 
can  be  obtained  only  with  very  soft  steels,  capable,  after 
tempering,  of  considerable  elongation  before  breaking.  This 
mode  of  proceeding  would  have  the  defect  of  complication  in 
the  stock  of  tools  and  fixtures  ;  moreover,  it  is  probable  that 
by  tempering  an  I  beam  in  parts  successively,  it  would  be 
impossible  to  retain  homogeneity  as  is  done  by  partial 
annealings.  For  these  different  reasons  annealing  the  worked 
materials  seems  to  us  in  any  case  far  preferable  to  re-establish- 
ing their  homogeneity  by  tempering. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ON    RIVETING   STEEL   PLATES    AND    ROLLED    BARS. 

RIVETING,  in  steel  construction,  must  be  done  according  to 
rules  somewhat  differing  from  those  adopted  for  iron.  In 
order  to  join  two  or  more  pieces  of  steel,  the  rivets  must  be 
either  stronger  or  more  numerous  than  in  case  of  iron,  which 
has  less  strength. 

The  rivets  may  be  made  stronger  either  by  making  them  of 
a  stronger  metal  than  iron,  or  by  increasing  their  dimensions. 

The  first  solution  is  the  more  attractive,  and  attempts  have 
been  made  to  substitute  steel  for  iron  in  the  manufacture  of 
rivets.  The  conclusions  arrived  at  in  England  seem  to  agree 
entirely  with  our  own.  The  leading  points  in  working  steel  rivets 
are,  ist,  to  heat  them  sufficiently,  but  not  to  go  beyond  a  cherry 
red  heat ;  2d,  to  hammer  and  finish  them  as  quickly  as 
possible.  Hammering,  at  a  temperature  below  red,  produces 
in  the  highest  degree  the  defects  of  tempering  the  metal  at 
the  point  of  impact.  The  rivets  thus  consist  of  zones  in 
different  conditions,  some  capable  of  slight  elongation  and 
great  resistance ;  others  having  less  resistance  and  more 
stretching  properties.  In  short,  all  the  dangerous  characteristics 
shown  by  a  plate  locally  heated  and  hammered  are  to  be 
found. 

The  rivet  must  be  heated  so  as  to  be  worked  easily.  If  a 
cherry-red  heat  is  overreached,  contraction,  resulting  from 


ioo  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

cooling,  uses  up  too  considerable  a  portion  of  its  possible 
elongation,  and  the  heads  of  the  rivets  are  likely  to  break  off. 

It  is  also  recommended  to  hammer  and  finish  rivets  very 
promptly,  so  that  the  carbon  maintained  in  solution  by  the 
blows,  may  yet,  while  the  rivet  is  red,  by  cooling  without 
further  working,  be  separated  from  the  solution. 

The  English  Lloyds  formally  protested  against  the  use  of 
steel  rivets ;  in  consideration  of  so  categorical  an  exclusion, 
no  experiments  on  the  subject  were  made  at  L'Orient.  Yet  it 
is  possibly  that,  if  riveting  had  been  done  rapidly,  by  a  regular 
pressure,  like  that  of  a  hydraulic  apparatus,  more  satisfactory 
results  than  hammer-riveting  might  have  been  obtained.  The 
advantages  which  might  result  from  the  use  of  steel  rivets  did 
not  seem  important  enough  to  encourage  us  in  making  any 
special  experiments  with  them. 

The  increase  in  the  strength  of  riveting  for  steel  plates 
must  be  therefore  found  in  increasing  the  diameter  or  the 
number  of  the  rivets.  Leaving  aside  the  question  of  economy, 
the  most  satisfactory  solution  would  probably  be  to  multiply 
the  number  of  the  rivets,  by  putting,  wherever  possible,  one 
more  row  than  in  iron  constructions ;  but  the  increase  in  ex- 
pense resulting  from  such  a  course  would  be  considerable. 

At  L'Orient  we  prepared  to  add  to  the  strength  by  enlarg- 
ing the  diameter. 

It  is  estimated  that  on  the  average,  steel  plates  with  a 
thickness  of  ^  can  replace  as  to  resistance  to  tension,  iron 
plates  with  a  thickness  of  i.  A  0.35"  inch  steel  plate  is 
proved  equal  to  an  0.46"  in.  iron  plate.  The  rules  for  riveting 
0.46  in.  iron  plates  were  therefore  applied  to  0.35  in.  steel 
plates ;  for  other  thicknesses  a  similar  ratio  was  observed. 
This  solution  was  simple,  and  presented  no  difficulty  for  flat 
or  round  headed  rivets  ;  but  the  question  was  a  little  more 
complicated  for  countersunk  rivets.  If  we  consider  two  plates 
joined  by  countersunk  rivets  (fig.  78),  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
tearing  away  of  these  plates  can  occur  in  two  ways  :  ist.  By  a 


ON  RIVETING  STEEL  PLATES,  ETC. 


101 


deformation  of  the  plates,  allowing  the  head  of  the  rivet  to  pass 
through  the  deformed  hole  ;  2d.  By  the  compression  of  the 
metal  of  the  head,  which  then  can  get  through  the  undeformed 
hole.  In  reality,  tearing  away  takes  place  through  these  two 
combined  efforts,  but  they  can  be  studied  separately. 

In  the  iron  plate  M  N  P  Q  having  the  same  resistance  as 
the  steel  plate  M'  N'  P  Q  and  receiving  rivets  of  the  same 
diameter,  the  first  mode  of  rupture  requires  the  compression  of 
the  region  A  D  F  surrounding  the  hole,  or  the  shearing  of  a 
cylinder  generated  by  the  line  A  F  ;  the  second  mode  neces- 


FF'    D 


sitates  the  compression  of  the  part  A  D  D'  of  the  rivet,  or 
the  separation  of  a  cylinder  generated  by  D  D'.  If  we  now 
consider  the  steel  plate  M'  N'  P  Q  fixed  with  the  same  rivet, 
we  shall  see  that  the  upper  part  of  the  rivet  presents  a  sharp 
edge  above  the  plate.  Moreover,  tearing  away  may  happen 
by  the  rupture  of  the  cylindrical  surface  generated  by  A'  F,  and 
slight  compression  of  the  part  A  A'  B  B'  of  the  head.  The 
surface  of  the  cylinder  of  rupture  is  in  relation  to  that  of  a 
cylinder  generated  by  A  F',  inferior  to  that  of  the  thicknesses  M 
P  and  M'  P.  The  tearing  away  should  therefore  take  place 
sooner  in  the  steel  plate  than  in  the  iron  plate.  For  this 
reason  the  contour  D  A  D'  C'  B'  C  was  adopted  for  the 
heads  of  rivets  ;  the  steel  plates  therefore  received  more 
decided  countersinking  than  the  iron  plates  ;  the  large  diameter 


102 


THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 


A1  B1  being  the  same  as  A  B,  the  proper  diameter  for  the 
iron  plate  corresponding  to  resistance  to  tension. 

Under  these  conditions,  the  tearing  apart  of  the  plate  must 
occur  according  to  the  cylinder  A1  FB1  F  the  circumference 
of  which  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  cylinder  A  F  B  E,  and 
which  by  reason  of  the  increased  tenacity  of  the  steel,  resists 
separation  like  the  latter.  The  rivet  behaves  as  in  the  iron 
plate  and  the  sharp  edge  A  B  is  avoided. 

All  the  countersunk  steel  rivets  used  in  the  works  were 
made  on  these  principles ;  fig.  79  represents  an  o."85  inch 
rivet. 

Flat  headed  rivets  cannot  be  guaranteed  to  offer  much 


79. — Full  size. 


8o. — Full  size. 


resistance  ;  heads  often  break  off  after  riveting,  and  the  same 
fact  is  sometimes  observed  on  carefully  made  joints  submitted 
to  a  blow.  These  ruptures  are  caused,  on  the  one  hand-by  the 
flattening  which  the  head  of  the  rivet  is  subjected  to  while 
being  formed,  and  on  the  other,  by  the  angle  at  the  junction 
of  the  head  and  the  body,  which  produces  an  effect  compara- 


ON  RIVETING  STEEL  PLATES,  ETC.  103 

ble  to  an  incipient  crack  ;  then  when  the  head  of  the  rivet 
does  not  bear  thoroughly  on  its  whole  surface,  it  is  subjected 
to  flexure,  the  leverage  of  which  increases  with  the  width 
of  the  head. 

For  these  reasons,  the  flat-headed  rivets  used  at  L'Orient 
were  shaped  according  to  a  mixed  system  recommended  by 
Mr.  Reed  in  his  previously  mentioned  work.  A  part,  in  the 
form  of  a  truncated  cone  (fig.  80),  was  interposed  between 
the  body  and  the  head,  and  filled  the  countersink  made  for 
this  purpose  in  the  plate.  This  system  allows  much  more 
confidence  to  be  placed  in  the  riveting.  If  one  cause  or 
another  subsequently  breaks  off  the  head,  the  plates  will  not 
be  abandoned  to  themselves,  but  will  be  kept  in  place  by  the 
countersinks.  The  height,  and  consequently  the  weight  of 
the-flat  headed  rivet  heads  can  be  considerably  reduced,  and 
yet  leave  out  of  the  plates  an  amount  of  metal  large  enough  to 
allow  for  oxydization  and  wear  in  parts  exposed  to  these 
influences. 

The  countersinking  necessary  to  lodge  the  conical  part  of 
the  heads  was,  in  .iron  plates,  punched  out,  without  any 
subsequent  work,  by  using  dies  a  few  millimeters  larger  than 
the  punch.  In  steel  plates  this  countersinking  was  obtained 
by  drilling,  while  enlarging  a  punched  cylindrical  hole.  So,  in 
either  case,  the  adoption  of  this  form  of  rivets  did  not  require 
an  increase  of  work.  Moreover,  the  manufacture  of  these 
rivets  is  not  any  more  complicated  than  that  of  ordinary  flat- 
headed  ones  ;  there  is  therefore  no  reasonable  objection  to 
the  general  adoption  of  this  form  of  rivets. 

It  became  interesting  to  know  whether  the  heat  of  a  rivet 
put  very  hot  in  its  hole  was  capable  of  restoring  to  the 
surrounding  region,  warmed  by  its  contact,  a  part  of  its  original 
elasticity  lost  in  punching.  Strips  of  steel  plates  were  punched 
on  their  axis  ;  in  each  of  these  holes  a  rivet  heated  almost  to 
white  heat  was  set  and  headed.  When  they  were  cold,  the 
strips  were  broken,  but  they  gave  exactly  the  same  results  as 


104  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

punched  strips  of  the  same  width  without  riveting.  The  heat 
transmitted  by  hot  rivets  to  the  walls  of  the  holes  they  fill,  is, 
then,  quite  insufficient  to  modify  the  existing  conditions  of  the 
fibres  of  the  metal. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

RECAPITULATION   AND    CONCLUSIONS. 

THE  facts  related  in  the  preceding  chapters  have  all  been 
explained  on  the  theory  we  have  adopted,  and  which  in  the 
actual  state  of  our  knowledge,  seems  to  us  very  plausible. 
Our  observations  were  generally  made  on  two  varieties  only  of 
soft  steel,  one  from  Terre-Noire  and  the  other  from  Creusot. 
These  materials  behaved  with  such  uniformity  in  the  different 
uses  and  tests  to  which  they  were  put,  that  it  must  be  admitted 
that  the  greatest  regularity  has  prevailed  in  their  manufacture, 
as  well  as  in  the  composition  of  the  raw  materials  they  were 
made  of. 

The  plates  and  beams  coming  from  these  manufactories 
were  generally  most  homogeneous,  and  we  did  not  notice  such 
flaws  as  the  manufacturers  of  steel  are  so  justly  concerned 
about.  We  think  such  defects  have  been  reduced  in  number 
and  importance,  but  not,  however,  entirely  suppressed.  The 
considerable  drawing  out  to  which  ingots  are  subjected  after 
casting,  probably  conceals  the  smallest  flaws  they  originally 
had,  by  reducing  them  to  imperceptible  threads  of  unimportant 
dimensions ;  it  is  hardly  probable  that  the  pressure  of  the  rolls 
or  the  blow  of  the  hammer  welds  the  metal  at  the  points  sur- 
rounding the  centre  of  the  ingot.  We  have  never  observed, 
however,  any  defect  attributable  to  the  cause  mentioned. 


io6  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

We  have  seen  that  the  Martin  steel  from  Creusot*  behaved 
as  some  Bessemer  steels  might  have  done,  if  less  carburized 
than  those  from  Terre-Noire,  and  having,  carbon  excepted, 
the  same  composition.  The  presence  of  ingredients  other  than 
carbon  evidently  exert  a  great  influence  on  the  properties  of 
the  metal,  and  may  modify  the  simple  laws  we  have  admitted ; 
but  it  does  not  appear  that  their  presence  should  cause  any 
notable  change  in  the  explanations  we  have  given. 

The  precautions  to  be  taken  in  working  up  steel  are  easily 
summed  up:  ist,  Avoid  any  local  pressure  of  whatever  nature  it 
may  be ;  2d,  If  local  pressures  have  been  produced  by  blows  of 
a  hammer,  the  action  of  the  punch,  etc.  (which  may,  as  we  have 
seen,  cause  ruptures),  heat  the  piece  to  a  cherry-red  in  a  very 
regular  manner  and  as  much  as  possible  in  its  entirety — the 
whole  of  it  at  once,  and  let  it  cool  in  the  open  air  on  a  homo- 
geneous surface  which  has  all  over  equal  conducting  power. 
This  simple  re-heating,  which  may  be  considered  as  annealing} 
for  plates  and  bars,  on  account  of  their  slight  thickness,  restores 
to  the  worked  metal  its  original  qualities,  even  if  it  was  in  a 
very  unstable  state  of  equilibrium. 

The  precautions  our  researches  have  proved  necessary, 
agree  in  many  points  with  those  recommended  by  Mr  Krupp, 
which  in  Mr.  Reed's  work,  quoted  above,  are  set  forth  as  fol- 
lows : 

Mr.  Krupp  says  as  to  this  cold  manufacturing  of  steel  boiler 
plate  : — "  All  projecting  or  re-entering  angles  must  be  avoid- 
ed ;  the  cut  edges  and  rivet  holes  must,  before  riveting  and  bend- 
ing, be  rounded  as  well  as  possible,  so  that  after  shearing  and 
punching  no  rough  edges  shall  be  left." 

He  recommends  completely  and  uniformly  annealing  the 
plates  at  a  dark-red  heat  after  each  principal  operation,  and 

*  The  comparison  we  have  made  evidently  holds  only  for  certain 
varieties  of  Martin  and  Bessemer  steel ;  it  can,  in  no  way,  establish  in  a 
positive  manner  the  superiority  of  one  process  of  manufacture  over  the 
other. 


RECAPITULATION  AND  CONCLUSIONS. 


107 


above   all,  never  to  miss  it  at  the  termination  of  the  various 
manipulations. 

The  advice  he  gives  as  to  bending  while  hot  is  as  follows  : 
"  The  plates  must  be  heated  before  bending  to  a  temperature 
not  above  bright  cherry-red.  They  must  be  heated  on  the 
largest  possible  surface  and  not  on  the  edges  only  ;  it  is  best  to 
heat  the  whole  plate  at  once  when  it  is  possible.  In  this 
manner  the  strains  resulting  from  heating  and  cooling,  which 
are  greater  in  steel  than  in  iron,  on  account  of  its  greater 
density,  are  uniformly  distributed.  The  thickest  and  stongest 
plates  may  break  if  part  of  their  surface  only  is  heated,  bent  or 
cooled.  The  curvatures  that  cannot  be  obtained  in  two  con- 
secutive heats  must  be  given  gradually  and  uniformly  to  the 
whole  plate.  For  instance,  to  bend  a  plate  to  a  right  angle,  the 
whole  plate  must  be  brought  to  30°  first,  then  to  60°,  then  to 
90° — that  is  to  say,  proceed  by  thirds.  After  the  whole  of 
these  operations,  the  plate  must  be  annealed  at  a  dark-red  ;  this 
annealing  will  equalize  the  strains  resulting  from  the  previous 
manipulations  and  will  restore  the  molecular  equilibrium." 

Although  we  do  not  share  completely  all  the  views  just 
quoted,  we  have  thought  it  necessary  to  reproduce  this  pas- 
sage in  its  entirety,  as  the  precautions  we  recommend  for 
"  cast  metal "  do  not  much  differ  from  the  preceding  ones, 
which  apply  to  more  highly  carburized  steel.  It  must  be  noticed 
'that  a  dark-red  heat  is  quite  insufficient  for  the  annealing  of 
steel ;  it  improves  it,  but  does  not  restore  it  to  its  normal 
state. 

We  also  believe  we  have  demonstrated  that  a  simple  re-heat- 
ing, with  cooling  in  the  open  air,  practically  constitutes  for 
plates  and  beams,  as  good  an  annealing  as  that  performed 
in  an  air-tight  chamber.  This  fact  has  great  importance,  as 
it  considerably  simplifies  the  difficulties  that  might  be  met  in 
annealing  steel. 

These  precautions,  which  are  only  an  exaggeration  of  the 
precautions  taken  in  the  treatment  of  iron  in  boiler-making 


io8  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

cannot  always  be  observed  in  an  absolute  manner ;  but  it  will 
be  easy,  in  most  cases,  to  carry  them  out  without  trouble 
or  complication  in  the  method,  or  in  the  products  resulting  from 
them.  It  will  be  prudent  to  choose  certain  grades  of  soft  steel  in 
preference  to  others,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  work  to  be 
clone.  Thus,  for  all  the  parts  of  a  construction  which  are 
rapidly  manipulated  and  subjected  to  blows,  it  will  be  found 
advantageous  to  choose  but  slightly  carburized  steel,  which 
bears  partial  heats  and  repeated  hammering  better,  and  is 
more  easily  welded  ;  while  for  pieces  relatively  requiring  less 
work  or  bearing  continued  working  without  blows,  it  will  be  pref- 
erable to  use  harder  and  stronger  steel.  At  any  rate,  we  do 
not  think  it  would  be  very  advantageous  to  adopt,  in  other 
than  very  exceptional  constructions,  less  carburized  steel  than 
the  variety  furnished  by  the  Creusot  Works  for  L'Orient.  By  re- 
placing iron  with  steel  differing  but  little  from  it,  the  slight  in- 
crease in  resistance  resulting  from  this  substitution  would  be 
but  a  feeble  advantage  to  compensate  for  the  great  difference 
in  price.  The  soft  steel,  the  resistance  of  which  is  28.56  tons 
per  inch,  is  easily  manipulated  ;  in  the  hands  of  experienced 
workmen,  breaking  is  not  to  be  feared  ;  materials  having  to 
undergo  several  operations  should  be  chosen  from  this  class. 
The  more  qarburized  steels  must  be  reserved  for  parts  a  little 
less  manipulated. 

Our  observations  were  confined  to  pieces  of  small  thick- 
ness ;  the  difficulties  encountered  in  working  soft  steel  are 
greater  as  the  thickness  increases  ;  mere  heating  and  cooling 
in  the  open  air  can  no  longer  be  considered  as  annealing ; 
the  cooling  must  be  effected  in  the  furnace  where  the  piece 
was  heated,  and  its  duration  must  be  proportionate  to  the 
thickness  of  the  metal.  But  very  slow  cooling  allows  crystalliza- 
tion of  the  internal  parts,  and  changes  the  fibrous  conditions 
obtained  by  forging.  A  tolerably  satisfactory  result  may 
often  be  obtained  by  regular  tempering  ;  this  operation,  how 
ever,  may  produce  too  much  alteration  in  the  elasticity  and 


RECAPITULATION  AND  CONCLUSIONS. 


109 


cause  ruptures.  After  tempering,  the  central  and  surface 
fibres  are  often  subjected  to  violent  molecular  tensions  absorb- 
ing a  large  portion  of  their  elongation.  Moreover,  the  tempered 
metal  is,  from  this  very  fact,  in  a  much  more  unfavorable  con- 
dition of  elasticity  than  after  annealing. 

Masses  of  steel  are  always  obtained  by  casting  ingots  ;  in 
this  state,  the  steel  does  not  possess  the  qualities  subsequently 
given  to  it  by  drawing  out  under  the  hammer  or  in  the  rolls, 
as  in  most  cast  pieces,  elastricity  is  very  slight,  and  is  acquired 
only  by  forging.  In  this  state,  sudden  heating  of  the  pieces 
should  be  avoided,  since  the  expansion  of  the  surface  being 
first  produced,  may  cause  the  separation  of  the  internal  layers. 
Forged  pieces  are  less  liable  to  break  by  the  sudden  heating 
of  their  surfaces,  since  the  expansion  of  the  metal  at  the 
exterior  does  not  produce  any  pressure  on  the  internal  fibres ; 
it  only  subjects  them  to  a  tension  that  their  power  of  elonga- 
tion acquired  by  forging  allows  them  to  bear.  Nevertheless, 
it  is  judged  more  prudent  to  heat  large  pieces  of  steel  gradually, 
by  lowering  the  temperature  of  the  furnace  to  dark-red  when 
they  are  charged  cold. 

The  same  precautions  are  necessary  when  a  piece  has 
been  subjected  to  a  great  number  of  heats  and  slow  coolings, 
without  any  drawing  out.  It  is  known  that,  by  this  kind  of 
annealing,  the  metal  approaches  the  texture  it  had  when  just 
cast,  and  loses  a  great  part  of  its  elastic  properties.  This 
effect  did  not  occur  in  the  previously  mentioned  works,  for 
the  number  of  heats  was  always  restricted.  The  slight  thick- 
ness of  the  plates  and  beams  used,  also  allowed  placing  them 
in  a  gas  furnace  without  previously  lowering  the  temperature. 

It  is  important  that  the  steels  furnished  by  manufacturers 
should  be  brought  to  the  most  complete  softness  possible 
corresponding  to  their  degree  of  carburization.  For  this  purpose, 
rolling  at  a  low  temperature  must  be  avoided — if  not,  it  is 
necessary  to  re-heat  the  plates  and  bars  before  using  them  \ 
this  heating,  if  brought  to  cherry- red,  takes  the  place  of  anneal 


1 1  o  THE  USE  OF  STEEL. 

ing,  and  gives  very  good  results.  We  do  not  think  that  a  less 
temperature  than  this  can  be  safely  employed :  precise  ex- 
periments only  could  demonstrate  whether  it  can  be  or  not. 

Judging  from  the  experiences  lately  acquired  at  L'Orient, 
by  the  tolerably  complicated  constructions  executed  in  soft 
steel,  we  may  say  substantially  that  all  boiler  work  and  plate 
work  which  can  be  executed  in  iron,  and  even  constructions 
that  iron  plates  and  bars  could  not  bear,  can  hereafter  be 
undertaken  in  this  metal  without  fear.  But  a  rational  method, 
similar  to  the  one  we  adopted,  must  always  be  observed  ;  it  is 
the  only  way  to  avoid  the  annoyances  steel  has  caused  to 
constructors  who  have  heretofore  used  it. 

The  bringing  into  common  use,  of  a  metal  possessing  great 
strength,  while  it  is  capable  of  enormous  elongation,  is  a 
matter  of  the  greatest  interest.  We  shall  esteem  ourselves 
very  fortunate,  if  by  these  few  observations,  we  shall  have 
contributed  to  this  result,  by  allaying  the  doubts  of  bi  'Iders 
and  engineers  who  have  occasion  to  employ  steel  i-  con- 
structions. 


THE   END. 


SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS 

PUBLISHED  BY 

D.  VAN  NOSTRAND, 

23  MURRAY  STREET  &  27  WARREN  STREET, 
NEW    YORK. 


Weisbach's  Meclianics0 

Fourth   Edition.    Revised. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $10.00. 

A  MANUAL  OF  THEORETICAL  MECHANICS.  By 
JULIUS  WEISBACH,  Pn.D.  Translated  from  the  fourth  aug- 
mented and  improved  German  edition,  with  an  introduction 
to  the  Calculus,  by  ECKLEY  B.  COXE,  A.M.,  Mining 
Engineer.  1,100  pages,  and  902  wood-cut  illustrations. 


c- 


2  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

Francis'  Lowell  Hydraulics. 

Third  Edition. 

4to.     Cloth.     $15.00. 

LOWELL  HYDBAULIC  EXPERIMENTS  —  being  a  Sclo 
tion  from  Experiments  011  Hydraulic  Motors,  on  the  Flow  of 
Water  over  Weirs,  and  in  Open  Canals  of  Uniform  Rectangular 
Section,  made  at  Lowell,  Mass.  By  J.  B.  FRANCIS,  Civil  Engineer. 
Third  edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  including  many  New  Ex- 
periments on  Gauging  Water  in  Open  Canals,  and  on  the  Flow 
through  Submerged  Orifices  and  Diverging  Tubes.  With  23 
copperplates,  beautifully  engraved,  and  about  100  new  pages  of 
text. 

The  work  is  divided  into  parts.  PART  I.,  on  hydraulic  motors,  includes 
ninety-two  experiments  on  an  improved  Fourneyron  Turbine  Water- Wheel, 
of  about  two  hundred  horse-power,  with  rules  and  tables  for  the  construction 
of  similar  motors ;  thirteen  experiments  on  a  model  of  a  centre-vent  water- 
wheel  of  the  most  simple  design,  and  thirty-nine  experiments  on  a  centre-vent 
water-wheel  of  about  two  hundred  and  thirty  horse-power. 

PART  II.  includes  seventy-four  experiments  made  for  the  purpose  of  deter- 
mining- the  form  of  the  formula  for  computing  the  flow  of  water  over  weirs ; 
nine  experiments  on  the  effect  of  back-water  on  the  flow  over  weirs;  eighty- 
eight  experiments  made  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  formula  for  com- 
puting the  flow  over  weirs  of  regular  or  standard  forms,  with  several  table* 
of  comparisons  of  the  new  formula  with  the  results  obtained  by  former  experi- 
menters; five  experiments  on  the  flow  over  a  dam  in  which  the  crest  was  of  the 
same  form  as  that  built  by  the  Essex  Company  across  tho  Merrimack  River  at 
Lawrence,  Massachusetts;  twenty-one  experiments  on  tho  effect  of  observing 
the  depths  of  water  on  a  weir  at  different  distances  from  the  weir ;  an  exten- 
sive series  of  experiments  made  for  the  purpose  of  determining  rules  for 
gauging  streams  of  water  in  open  canals,  with  tables  for  facilitating  the  some ; 
and  one  hundred  and  one  experiments  on  the  discharge  of  water  through  sub- 
merged orifices  and  diverging  tubes,  the  whole  being  fully  illustrated  by 
twenty-three  double  plates  engraved  on  copper. 

In  1855  the  proprietors  of  the  Locks  and  Canals  on  Merrimack  Biver  con- 
sented to  the  publication  of  the  first  edition  of  this  work,  which  contained  a 
Selection  of  the  most  important  hydraulic  experiments  made  at  Lowell  up  to 
that  time.  In  this  edition  the  principal  hydraulic  experiments  made  there, 
subsequent  to  1855,  have  be^n  added,  including  the  important  series  above 
mentioned,  for  determining  rules  for  tho  gauging  the  flow  of  water  in  open 
canals,  and  the  interesting  scries  on  tho  flow  through  a  submerged  Venturi'a 
tube,  in  which  a  larger  flow  was  obtained  than  any  we  find  recorded. 


D.   VAN  NOSTRAND. 


Williamson's  Meteorological  Tables. 

4to.    Flexible  Cloth.     $2.50. 

PRACTICAL  TABLES  Iff  METEOROLOGY  AND  HYPSO- 
METEY,  in  connection  with  the  use  of  the  Barometer.  By  Col. 
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Merrill's  Iron  Truss  Bridges. 

Third    Edition. 

4to.    Cloth.    $5.00. 

IRON  TEUSS  BRIDGES  FOR  RAILROADS.  The  Method  of 
Calculating  Strains  in  Trusses,  with  a  careful  comparison  of  tho 
most  prominent  Trusses,  in  reference  to  economy  in  combination, 
etc.,  etc.  By  Brevet  Colonel  WILLIAM  E.  MERRILL,  U.S.A., 
Major  Corps  of  Engineers.  Nino  lithographed  plates  of  illustra- 
tions. 

"  The  work  before  us  is  an  attempt  to  give  a  basis  for  sound  reform  in  this 
feature  of  railroad  engineering,  by  throwing  '  additional  light  upon  tho 
method  of  calculating  the  maxima  strains  that  can  come  upon  any  part  of  a 
bridge  truss,  and  upon  the  manner  of  proportioning  each  part,  so  that  it  shall 
be  as  strong  relatively  to  its  own  strains  as  any  other  part,  and  so  that  tho 
entire  bridge  may  be  strong  enough  to  sustain  several  times  as  great  strains 
as  the  greatest  that  can  come  upon  it  in  actual  use.'  " — Scientific  American. 

"  The  author  has  presented  his  views  in  a  clear  and  intelligent  manner,  and 
the  ingenuity  displayed  in  coloring  the  figures  so  as  to  present  certain  facts 
to  the  eye  forms  no  inappreciable  part  of  tho  merits  of  the  work.  The  reduc- 
tion of  the  '  formulae  for  obtaining  the  strength,  volume,  and  weight  of  a  cast- 
iron  pillar  under  a  strain  of  compression,'  will  be  very  acceptable  to  those  who 
have  occasion  hereafter  to  make  investigations  involving  these  conditions.  Aa 
a  whole,  the  work  has  been  well  done." — Railroad  Gazette,  Chicago, 


Allan's  Theory  of  Arches. 

18mo.    Boards.     50  cts. 

THEORY  OF  AECHES.     By  Prof.   W.  ALLA^,   formerly  of 
Washington  and  Lee  University.     Illustrated. 

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4  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

Shreve  on  Bridges  and  Roofs. 

Svo,  87  wood-cut  illustrations.    Cloth.     $5.00. 

A  TREATISE  ON  THE  STRENGTH'  OF  BRIDGES  AND 
ROOFS — comprising  the  determination  of  Algebraic  formulas 
for  Strains  in  Horizontal,  Inclined  or  Rafter,  Triangular,  Bow- 
string, Lenticular  and  other  Trusses,  from  fixed  and  moving 
loads,  with  practical  applications  and  examples,  for  the  use  of 
Students  and  Engineers.  By  SAMUEL  H.  SHRETE,  A.M.,  Civil 
Engineer. 

"  On  the  whole,  Mr.  Shreve  has  produced  a  book  which  is  the  simplest, 
clearest,  and  at  the  same  time,  the  most  systematic  and  with  the  best  math- 
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Railroad  Gazette. 

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statement,  the  student  will  have  but  himself  to  blame  it'  lie  does  not  become 
thorough  master  of  the  subject." — L'Hidu:i  Miuiny  J-»irnat. 

"Mr.  Shreve  has  produced  a  work  that  must  always  take  high  rank  as  a 
text-book,  *  *  *  and  no  Bridge  Engineer  should  be  without  it,  as  a 
valuable  work  of  reference,  and  one  that  will  frequently  assist  him  out  of 
difficulties." — Franklin  Institute  Journal. 


The  Kansas  City  Bridge . 

4to.     Cloth.     $6.03 

WITH  AN  ACgOUNT  0?  THE  REGIMEX  OF  THE  MIS- 
SOURI RIVER,  and  a  description,  of  the  Methods  used  for 
Founding  in  that  River.  By  0.  CHAXUTE,  Chief  Engineer,  and 
GEOEGE  MOBISOX,  Assistant  Engineer.  Illustrated  with  five 
lithographic  views  and  twelve  plates  of  plans. 

Illustrations. 

VIEWS.— View  of  the  Kansas  City  I  tion  Works,  Pier  No.  3.   IV.  Founda- 
Bridge,  August  2,   1869.     Lowering  i  tion  Works,  Pier  No.  4.     V.  Founda- 


Caisson  No.  1  into  position.  Caisson, 
for  Pier  No.  4  brought  into  position. 
View  of  Foundation  Works,  Pier  No. 
4.  Pier  No.  1. 

PLATES. — I.  Map  showing  location 
of  Bridge.  II.  Water  Record— Cross 
Section  of  River — Profile  of  Crossing 
— Pontoon  Protection.  III.  Water 
Deadener — Caisson  No.  2 — Founda 


tion  Works,  Pier  No.  4.  VI.  Caisson 
No.  5— Sheet  Piling  at  Pier  No.  6— 
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Box.  VII.  Masonry — Draw  Protec- 
tion— False  Works  between  Piers  3 
and  4.  VIII.  Floating  Derricks. 

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X.  248  feet  span.  XL  Plans  of  Dra^r. 
XTT.  Strain  Diagrams. 


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Clarke's    Qnincy  Bridge. 

4to.    Cloth.     $7.50. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  IBON  RAILWAY  Bridge  across  the 
Mississippi  River  at  Quincy,  Illinois.  By  THOMAS  CURTIS  CLABKE, 
Chief  Engineer.  Illustrated  with  twenty-one  lithographed 
plans. 


Barba  on  the  Use  of  Steel. 

12mo.     Illustrated.     Cloth.    In  Press. 

THE  USE  OF  STEEL  IN  CONSTRUCTION.  Method  of 
Working,  Applying,  and  Testing-  Plates  and  Bars.  By  J. 
BARBA,  Chief  Naval  Constructor.  Translated  from  the 
French,  with  a  Preface,  by  A.  L.  HOLLEY,  P.B. 


Whipple  on  Bridge  Building. 

8vo,  Illustrated.     Cloth.     $4.00. 

AN  ELEMENTARY  AND  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON 
BRIDGE  BUILDING.  An  enlarged  and  improved  edition  of 
the  Author's  original  work.  By  S.  WHIPPLE,  C.  E.,  Inventor  of 
the  Whipple  Bridges,  &c.  Second  Edition. 

The  design  has  been  to  develop  from  Fundamental  Principles  a  system  easy 
of  comprehension,  and  such  as  to  enable  the  attentive  reader  and  student  to 
judge  understandingly  for  himself,  as  to  the  relative  merits  of  different  plana 
and  combinations,  and  to  adopt  for  use  such  as  may  be  most  suitable  for  the 
cases  he  may  have  to  deal  with. 

It  is  hoped  the  work  may  prove  an  appropriate  Text-Book  upon  the  subject 
treated  of,  for  the  Engineering  Student,  and  a  useful  manual  for  the  Practio*  ' 
ing  Engineer  and  Bridge  Builder.  ..-;  *  r  •; 


6  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED     BY 

Stoney  on  Strains. 

New  and  Revised  Edition,  with  numerous  illustrations. 

Royal  8vo,  664  pp.    Cloth.    $12.50. 

THE  THEOEY  OF  STRAINS  IN  GIRDERS  and  Similar  Struc- 
tures, with  Observations  on  the  Application  of  Theory  to  Practice, 
and  Tables  of  Strength  and  other  Properties  of  Materials.  By 
B.  STONEY,  B.  A. 


Roebling's  Bridges. 

Imperial  folio.     Cloth.     $25.00. 

fcONG  AND  SHORT  SPAN  RAILWAY  BRIDGES.  By  JOHW 
A.  HOBBLING,  C.  E.  Illustrated  with  large  copperplate  engrav- 
ings of  plans  and  views. 

List  of  Plates 

1.  Parabolic  Truss  Railway  Bridge.  2,  3,  4,  5,  6.  Details  of  Parabolic 
Truss,  with  centre  span  500  feet  in  the  clear.  7.  Plan  and  View  of  a  Bridge 
over  the  Mississippi  River,  at  St.  Louis,  for  railway  and  common  travel.  8,  9, 
10, 11, 12.  Details  and  View  of  St.  Louis  Bridge.  13,  Railroad  Bridge  over 
the  Ohio. 

Diedrichs'  Theory  of  Strains. 

8vo.    Cloth.    $5.00. 

A  Compendium  for  the  Calculation  and  Construction  of  Bridges, 
•  Roofs,  and  Cranes,  with  the  Application  of  Trigonometrical 
Notes.  Containing  the  most  comprehensive  information  in  re- 
gard to  the  Resulting  Strains  for  a  permanent  Load,  as  also  for 
a  combined  (Permanent  and  Rolling)  Load.  In  two  sections 
adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the  present  time.  By  JOHN  DIED- 
BICHS.  Illustrated  by  numerous  plates  and  diagrams, 

"The  want  of  a  compact,  universal  and  popular  treatise  on  the  Construc- 
tion of  Roofs  and  Bridges-- especially  one  treating  of  the  influence  of  a  varia- 
ble load— «nd  the  unsatisfactory  essays  of  different  authors  on  the 
induced  mo  to  prepare  thig  work." 


D.   VAN  NOSTRAND. 


Jacob  on  Retaining  Walls. 

18mo.     Boards.   50  cts. 

PRACTICAL  DESIGNING  OF  RETAINING  WALLS.      By 
ARTHUR  JACOB,  A.  B. 


Campin  on  Iron  Roofs. 

Large  8vo.     Cloth.    $2.00. 

ON  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  IRON  ROOFS.    A  Theoretical 

and  Practical  Treatise.  By  FP.ANCIS  CAMPIN.  With  wood-cuts 
and  plates  of  Roofs  lately  executed. 

"  The  mathematical  formulas  are  of  an  elementary  kind,  and  the  process 
admits  of  an  easy  extension  so  as  to  embrace  the  prominent  varieties  of  iron 
truss  bridges.  The  treatise,  though  of  a  practical  scientific  character,  may  be 
easily  mastered  by  any  one  familiar  with  elementary  mechanics  and  plane 
trigonometry." 

Holley's  Railway  Practice. 

I  vol.  folio.    Cloth.    $12.00. 

AMERICAN  AND  EUROPEAN  RAILWAY  PRACTICE,  in 

the  Economical  Generation  of  Steam,  including  the  materials 
and  construction  of  Coal-burning  Boilers,  Combustion,  the  Varia- 
ble Blast,  Vaporization,  Circulation,  Super-heating,  Supplying 
and  Heating  Feed-water,  &c.,  and  the  adaptation  of  Wood  and 
Coke-burning  Engines  to  Coal-burning  ;  and  in  Permanent  Way, 
including  Road-bed,  Sleepers,  Rails,  Joint  Fastenings,  Street 
Railways,  &c.,  &c.  By  ALEXANDER  L.  HOLLEY,  B.  P.  With  77 
lithographed  plates. 

"  This  is  an  elaborate  treatise  by  one  of  our  ablest  civil  engineers,  on  the  con- 
struction and  use  of  locomotives,  with  a  few  chapters  on  the  building  of  Kail- 
roads.  *  *  *  All  these  subjects  are  treated  by  the  author,  who  ia  » 
first-class  railroad  engineer,  in  both  an  intelligent  and  intelligible  manner.  The 
facts  and  ideas  are  well  arranged,  and  presented  in  a  clear  and  simple  style* 
accompanied  by  beautiful  engravings,  and  we  presume  the  work  will  be  regard* 
ed  as  indispensable  by  all  who  are  interested  in  a  knowledge  of  the  construc- 
tion of  railroads  and  rolling  stock,  or  the  working  of  locomotives." — 
American. 


8  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

Henrici's  Skeleton  Structures. 

Svo.     Cloth.     $1.50. 

SKELETON  STRUCTURES,  especially  in  their  Application  to 
the  building  of  Steel  and  Iron  Bridges.  By  OLAUS  HENEICI. 
With  folding  plates  and  diagrams. 

By  presenting  these  general  examinations  on  Skeleton  Structures,  \vith 
particular  application  for  Suspended  Bridges,  to  Engineers,  I  venture  to  ex- 
press the  hope  that  they  -will  receive  these  theoretical  results  with  some  confi- 
dence, even  although  an  opportunity  is  wanting  to  compare  them  with  practi- 
cal results.  O.  H. 


Useful  Information  for  Railway  Men. 

Pocket  form.     Morocco,  gilt,  $2.00. 

Compiled  by  W.  G.  HAMILTON,  Engineer.     Sixth    edition,  revised 
and  enlarged.     570  pages. 

"  It  embodies  many  valuable  formulae  and  recipes  useful  for  railway  men, 
and,  indeed,  for  almost  every  class  of  persons  in  the  world.  The  '  informa- 
tion '  comprises  some  valuable  formulae  and  rules  for  the  construction  of 
boilers  and  engines,  masonry,  properties  of  steel  and  iron,  and  the  strength 
of  materials  generally." — Railroad  Gazette,  Chicago. 


The  Mechanic's  Friend. 

12mo.    Cloth.    300  Illustrations.     $1.50. 

THE  MECHANIC'S  FRIEND  :  A  Collection  of  Receipts  and 
Practical  Suggestions,  Relating  to  Aquaria  —  Bronzing  — 
Cements  —  Drawing  —  Dyes  —  Electricity —  Gilding  —  Glass- 
Working  —  Glues — Horology — Lacquers — Locomotives — Mag- 
1  netism  —  Metal  Working  —  Modelling  —  Photography — Pyrq- 
techny  —  Railways  —  Solders  —  Steam-Engine  —Telegraphy— 
Taxidermy — Varnishes  —  Waterproofing  —  and  Miscellaneous 
Tools,  Instruments,  Machines,  and  Processes  connected  with 
the  Chemical  and  Mechanical  Arts.  By  WILLIAM  E. 
M.R.S.L, 


J).  VAN"  jVOfi 


Kirkwood  on  Filtration. 

4to.     Cloth.     $15.00. 

BEPOBT  ON  THE  FILTBATION  OF  BIVEB  WATEBS,  for 

the  Supply  of  Cities,  as  practised  in  Europe,  made  to  the  Board 
of  Water  Commissioners  of  the  City  of  St.  Louis.  By  JAMES  P. 
ELiitKwooD.  Illustrated  by  30  double-plate  engravings. 

CONTENTS. — Report  on  Filtration — London  "Works,  General— Chelsea 
"Water  "Works  and  Filters — Lambeth  Water  Works  and  Filters — Southwark 
and  Vauxhall  Water  Works  and  Filters — Grand  Junction  Water  Works  and 
Filters— West  Middlesex  Water  Works  and  Filters— New  River  Water 
Works  and  Filters — East  London  Water  Works  and  Filters — Leicester  Water 
Works  and  Filters— York  Water  Works  and  Filters— Liverpool  Y/ater  Works 
and  Filters— Edinburgh  Water  Works  and  Filters— Dublin  Water  Works 
and  Filters — Perth  Water  Works  and  Filtering  Gallery — Berlin  Water 
Works  and  Filters — Hamburg  Water  Works  and  Reservoirs — Altona  Water 
Works  and  Filters — Tours  Water  Works  and  Filtering  Canal — Angers  Water 
Works  and  Filtering  Galleries — Nantes  Water  Works  and  Filters — Lyons 
Water  Works  and  Filtering  Galleries— Toulouse  Water  Works  and  Filtering 
Galleries — Marseilles  Water  Works  and  Filters — Genoa  Water  Works  and 
Filtering  Galleries — Leghorn  Water  Works  and  Cisterns — Wakefield  Water 
Works  and  Filters — Appendix. 


Tnnner  on  Roll-Turning. 

1  vol.  8vo.  and  1  vol.  plates.     $10.00. 

A  TEEATISE  ON  BOLL-TUBNING  FOR  THE  MANUFAC, 
TUBE  OF  IBON.  By  PETER  TUNNER.  Translated  and  adapted. 
By  JOHN  B.  PEARSE,  of  the  Pennsylvania  Steel  Works.  With 
numerous  wood-cuts,  8vo.,  together  with  a  folio  atlas  of  10  litho- 
graphed plates  of  Bolls,  Measurements,  &c. 

"  We  commend  this  book  as  a  clear,  elaborate,  and  practical  treatise  upon 
the  department  of  iron  manufacturing  operations  to  which  it  is  devoted. 
The  writer  states  in  his  preface,  that  for  twenty-five  years  he  has  felt  the 
necessity  of  such  a  work,  and  has  evidently  brought  to  its  preparation  the 
fruits  of  experience,  a  painstaking  regard  for  accuracy  of  statement,  and  a 
desire  to  furnish  information  in  a  style  readily  understood.  The  book  should 
.be  in  the  hands  of  every  one  interested,  either  in  the  general  practice  of 
mechanical  engineering,  or  the  special  branch  of  manufacturing  operations  to 
•vrhich  the  work  relates.' — American  Artisan. 


10  SCIENTIFIC  J3OOJf$  PUBLISHED  I)Y 

Jacob  on  Storage  Reservoirs. 

18mo.    Boards     50  cts. 

THE  DESIGNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  STORAGE 
RESERVOIRS.  By  AKTHUK  JACOB,  B.  A.  With  tables  and1 
wood-cuts  representing  sections,  etc. 


Hewson  on  Embankments. 

8  vo.     Cloth.     $2.00. 

PRINCIPLES   AND    PRACTICE  OF  EMBANKING   LANDS 

from  River  Floods,  as  applied  to  the  Levees  of  the  Mississippi. 
By  WILLIAM  HEWSON,  Civil  Engineer. 

"  This  is  a  valuable  treatise  on  the  principles  and  practice  of  embanking 
lands  from  river  floods,  as  applied  to  the  Lovees  of  the  Mississippi,  by  a  highly 
intelligent  and  experienced  engineer.  The  author  says  it  is  a  first  attempt 
to  reduce  to  order  and  to  rule  the  design,  execution,  and  measurement  of  the 
Levees  of  the  Mississippi.  It  is  a  most  useful  and  needed  contribution  to 
scientific  literature. — Philadelphia  Evening  Journal. 


Griiner  on  Steel. 

8vo.  Cloth.     $3.50. 

THE  MANUFACTUEE  OF  STEEL.  By  M.  L.  GETJNER,  trans- 
lated from  the  French.  By  Lenox  Smith,  A.  M.,  E.  M.,  with  an 
appendix  on  the  Bessemer  Process  in  the  United  States,  by  the 
translator.  Illustrated  by  lithographed  drawings  and  wood-cuts. 

"  The  purpose  of  the  work  is  to  present  a  careful,  elaborate,  and  at  the 
same  time  practical  examination  into  the  physical  properties  of  steel,  as  well 
as  a  description  of  the  new  processes  and  mechanical  appliances  for  its  manufac- 
ture. The  information  which  it  contains,  gathered  from  many  trustworthy 
sources,  will  be  found  of  much  value  to  the  American  steel  manufacturer, 
who  may  thus  acquaint  himself  with  the  results  of  careful  and  elaborate  ex- 
periments in  other  countries,  and  better  prepare  himself  for  successful  com- 
petition in  this  important  industry  with  foreign  makers.  The  fact  that  this 
volume  is  from  the  pen  of  one  of  the  ablest  metallurgists  of  the  present  day, 
cannot  fail,  we  think,  to  secure  for  it  a  favorable  consideration. — Iron  Age. 


7).    VAN  NOSTRAND.  11 


Bauerman  on  Iron. 

12mo.  Cloth.     $2.00. 

TREATISE  ON  THE  METALLURGY  OF  IRON.  Contain- 
ing outlines  of  the  History  of  Iron  Manufacture,  methods  of 
Assay,  and  analysis  of  Iron  Ores,  processes  of  manufacture  of 
Iron  and  Steel,  etc.,  etc.  By  H.  BATJEEMAN.  First  American 
edition.  Revised  and  enlarged,  with  an  appendix  on  the  Martin 
Process  for  making  Steel,  from  the  report  of  Abram  S.  Hewitt 
Illustrated  with  numerous  wood  engravings. 

"  This  is  an  important  addition  to  the  stock  of  technical  works  published  in 
this  country.  It  embodies  the  latest  facts,  discoveries,  and  processes  con- 
nected with  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel,  and  should  be  in  the  hands  of 
overy  person  interested  in  the  subject,  as  well  as  in  all  technical  and  scientific 
libraries." — Scientific  American. 


Link  and  Valve  Motions,  by  W.  S. 
Auchincloss. 

Sixth  Edition.    8vo.  Cloth.     $3.00. 

APPLICATION  OF  THE  SLIDE  VALVE  and  Link  Motion  to 
Stationary,  Portable,  Locomotive  and  Marine  Engines,  with  new 
and  simple  methods  for  proportioning  the  parts.  By  WILUAJI 
S.  AUCHINCLOSS,  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineer.  Designed  as 
a  hand-book  for  Mechanical  Engineers,  Master  Mechanics, 
Draughtsmen  and  Students  of  Steam  Engineering.  All  dimen- 
sions of  the  valve  are  found  with  the  greatest  ease  by  means  of 
a  Printed  Scale,  and  proportions  of  the  link  determined  without 
the  assistance  of  a  model.  Illustrated  by  37  wood-cuts  and  21 
lithographic  plates,  together  with  a  copperplate  engraving  of  the 
Travel  Scale. 

All  the  matters  we  have  mentioned  are  treated  with  a  clearness  and  absence 
of  unnecessary  verbiage  which  renders  the  work  a  peculiarly  valuable  one. 
The  Travel  Scale  only_requires  to  be  known  to  be  appreciated.  Mr.  A.  writes 
so  ably  on  his  subject,  we  wish  he  had  written  more.  London  JSn* 
gineering. 

We  have  never  opened  a  work  relating  to  steam  which  seemed  to  us  better 
calculated  to  give  an  intelligent  mind  a  clear  understanding  of  the  depart' 
ment  it  discusses. — Scientific  American. 


12  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

Slide  Valve  by  Eccentrics,  by  Prof. 
C,  W.  MacCord. 

4to.    Illustrated.    Cloth,     $4.00. 

A  PEACTICAL  TEEATISE  ON  THE  SLIDE  YALYE  BY 
ECCENTRICS,  examining  by  methods,  the  action  of  the  Eccen- 
tric upon  the  Slide 'Valve,  and  explaining  the  practical  proces- 
ses of  laying  out  the  movements,  adapting  the  valve  for  its 
various  duties  in  the  steam-engine.  For  the  use  of  Engineers, 
Draughtsmen,  Machinists,  and  Students  of  valve  motions  in 
general.  By  C.  "W.  MACCOED,  A.  M.,  Professor  of  Mechanical 
Drawing,  Stevens'  Institute  of  Technology,  Hoboken,  N  J. 


Stillman's  Steam-Engine  Indicator. 

12mo.  Cloth.    $1.00. 

THE  STEAM-ENGINE  INDICATOK,  and  the  Improved  Mano- 
meter Steam  and  Yacuum  Gauges ;  their  utility  and  application 
By  PAUL  STILLMAN.  New  edition. 


Bacon's  Steam-Engine  Indicator. 

12mo.  Cloth.    $100.     Mor.     $1.50. 

A  TBEATISE  ON  THE  EICHAEDS  STEAM-ENGINE  IN- 
DICATOR, with  directions  for  its  use.  By  CHARLES  T.  PORTER. 
Eevised,  with  notes  and  large  additions  as  developed  by  Amer- 
ican Practice,  with  an  Appendix  containing  useful  formulee  and 
rules  for  Engineers.  By  F.  "W.  BACON,  M.  E.,  Member  of  the 
American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers.  Illustrated.  Second  Edition 

In,  this  work,  Mr.  Porter's  book  lias  been  taken  as  the  basis,  but  Mr.  Bacon 
has  adapted  it  to  American  Practice,  and  has  conferred  a  great  boon  on 
American  Engineers. — Artisan. 


Steam  Boiler  Explosions. 

18mo.    Boards.    50  cts. 
STEAM  BOILER  EXPLOSIONS.     By  ZBBAH  COLBUEN. 

"  It  is  full  of  practical  information,  and  serves  to  show  in  a  most  marked 
manner  how  very  little  one's  knowledge  upon  the  subject  has  advanced  during 
the  past  ten  y ears.  "-N.  Y.  Times. 


I).    VAN  NOSTRAND.  13 

Grillmore's  Limes  and  Cements. 

Fifth  Edition.     Revise  I  and  Enlarged. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $4.00. 

PRACTICAL  TEEATISE  ON  LIMES,  HYDRAULIC  CE- 
MENTS, AND  MORTARS.  Papers  on  Practical  Engineering, 
U.  S.  Engineer  Department,  No.  9,  containing  Reports  of 
numerous  experiments  conducted  in  New  York  City,  during  the 

years  1858  to   1861,  inclusive.     By  Q.  A.   U-ILLAIOUE,  Lt.-Col. 

U.  S.  Corps  of  Engineers,  Brevet  Major- General  U.  S.  Army. 

With  numerous  illustrations. 

"  This  "work  contains  a  record  of  certain  experiments  and  researches  made 
under  the  authority  of  the  Engineer  Bureau  of  the  "War  Department  from 
1858  to  1SG1,  upon  the  various  hydraulic  cements  of  tho  United  States,  and 
the  materials  for  their  manufacture.  The  experiments  were  carefully  made, 
and  aro  well  reported  and  compiled. ' — Journal  Franklin  Institute. 


Gillmore's  Ooigiiet  Beton. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $2.50. 

COIGNET  BETON  AND  OTHER  ARTIFICIAL  STONE.  By 
Q.  A.  GILLMORE,  Lt.-Col.  U.  S  Corps  of  Engineers,  Brevet 
Major-General  U.  S.  Army.  9  Plates,  Views,  etc. 

This  work  describes  with  considerable  minuteness  of  detail  the  several  kinds 
of  artificial  stone  in  most  general  use  in  Europe  and  now  beginning  to  be 
introduced  in  the  United  States,  discusses  their  properties,  relative  merits, 
.  and  cost,  and  describes  the  materials  of  which  they  aro  composed. 
Tho  subject  is  one  of  special  and  growing  interest,  and  we  commend  the  work, 
embodying  as  it  does  the  matured  opinions  of  an  experienced  engineer  and 
expert.  *•''•• 


G-illmore  on  Roads. 

12mo.  Cloth.     In  Press. 

A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  CONSTRUCTION 
OF  ROADS,  STREETS,  AND  PAVEMENTS.  By  Q.  A. 
GILLMORE,  Lt.-Col.  U.  S.  Corps  of  Engineers,  Brevet  Major- 


14  SCIENTIFIC  ZOOXS  PUBLISHED 


Williamson  on  the  Barometer. 

4to.     Cloth.     $15.00. 

ON  THE  USE  OF  THE  BAKOMETEB,  OK  STJEVEYS  AND 
RECONNAISSANCES.  Part  I.  Meteorology  in  its  Connec- 
tion with.  Hypsometry.  Part  II.  Barometric  Hypsometry.  By 
H.  S.  WILLIAMSON,  Bvt.  Lieut-Col.  U.  S.  A.,  Major  Corps  of 
Engineers.  With.  Illustrative  Tables  and  Engravings.  Paper 
No.  15,  Professional  Papers,  Corps  of  Engineers. 

"  SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL.,  Feb.  27, 1867. 
"  Gen.  A.  A.  HUMPHREYS,  Chief  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army  : 

"  GENERAL, — I  have  the  honor  to  submit  to  you,  in  the  following  pages,  the 
results  of  my  investigations  in  meteorology  and  hypsometry,  made  with  tho 
view  of  ascertaining  how  far  the  barometer  can  be  used  as  a  reliable  instru- 
ment for  determining  altitudes  on  extended  lines  of  survey  and  reconnais- 
sances. These  investigations  have  occupied  the  leisure  permitted  me  from  my 
professional  duties  during  the  last  ten  years,  and  I  hope  the  results  will  be 
deemed  of  sufficient  value  to  have  a  place  assigned  them  among  the  printed 
professional  papers  of  the  United  States  Corps  of  Engineers. 
"  Very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

"B,  S.  WILLIAMSON, 
"  Bvt.  Lt.-Col.  U.  S.  A.,  Major  Corps  of  U.  S.  Engineers." 


Yon  Cotta's  Ore  Deposits. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $4.00. 

TEEATISE  ON  OEE  DEPOSITS.  By  BERNHAED  YON  COTTA, 
Professor  of  Geology  in  the  Eoyal  School  of  Mines,  Preidberg, 
Saxony.  Translated  from  tlio  second  German  edition,  by 
FREDERICK  PRIME,  Jr.,  Mining  .Engineer,  and  revised  by  the 
author,  with  numerous  illustrations. 

"  Prof.  Von  Cotta  of  the  Freiberg  School  of  Mines,  is  the  author  of  the 
best  modern  treatise  on  ore  deposits,  and  we  are  heartily  glad  that  this  ad- 
mirable work  has  been  translated  and  published  in  this  country.  The  trans- 
lator, Mr.  Frederick  Prime,  Jr.,  a  graduate  of  Freiberg,  has  had  in  his  work 
the  great  advantage  of  a  revision  by  the  author  himself,  who  declares  in  a 
prefatory  note  that  this  may  be  considered  as  a  new  edition  (the  third)  of  his 
own  book. 

"  It  is  a  timely  and  welcome  contribution  to  the  literature  of  mining  in 
this  country,  and  we  are  grateful  to  the  translator  for  his  enterprise  and  gfood 
judgment  in  undertaking  its  preparation ;  while  we  recognize  with,  equal  cor- 
diality the  liberality  of  the  author  in  granting  both  permission  and  assist- 
." — Extract  from  Review  in  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal. 


7).  VAN  NOSTRAND.  15 

Plattner's  Blow-Pipe  Analysis. 

Second  edition.    Kevised.    8vo.     Cloth.    $7.50. 

PLATTNEE'S  MANUAL  OF  QUALITATIVE  AND  QUAN- 
TITATIVE ANALYSIS  WITH  THE  BLOW-PIPE.  Prom 
the  last  German  edition  Revised  and  enlarged.  By  Prof.  TH. 
RICHTEH,  of  the  Royal  Saxon  Mining  Academy.  Translated  by 
Prof.  H.  B.  CORNWALL,  Assistant  in  the  Columbia  School  of 
Mines,  New  York ;  assisted  by  JOHN  II.  CASWELL.  Illustrated 
with  eighty-seven  wood-cuts  and  one  Lithographic  Plate.  560 
pages. 

"  Plattner's  celebrated  -work  has  long  been- recognized  as  the  only  complete 
book  on  Blow-Pipe  Analysis.  The  fourth  German  edition,  edited  by  Prof. 
Kichter,  fully  sustains  the  reputation  which  the  earlier  editions  acquired  dur- 
ing the  lifetime  of  the  author,  and  it  is  a  source  of  great  satisfaction  to  us  to 
know  that  Prof.  Kichter  has  co-operated  with  the  translator  in  issuing  the 
American  edition  of  the  work,  which  is  in  fact  a  fifth  edition  of  the  original 
work,  being  far  more  complete  than  the  last  German  edition." — Silliman'i 
Journal. 

There  is  nothing  so  complete  to  be  found  in  the  English  language.  Platt- 
ner's  book  is  not  a  mere  pocket  edition  ;  it  is  intended  as  a  comprehensive  guide 
to  all  that  is  at  present  known  on  the  blow-pipe,  and  as  such  is  really  indis- 
pensable to  teachers  and  advanced  pupils. 

"  Mr.  Cornwall's  edition  is  something  more  than  a  translation,  as  it  contains 
many  corrections,  emendations  and  additions  not  to  be  found  in  the  original. 
It  is  a  decided  improvement  on  the  work  in  its  German  dress." — Journal  of 
Chemistry. 


Egleston's  Mineralogy. 

8vo.     Illustrated  with  34  Lithographic  Plates.     Cloth.     $4.50. 

LECTURES  ON  DESCEIPTIVE  MINERALOGY,  Delivered 
at  the  School  of  Mines,  Columbia  College.  Br  PROFESSOR  T. 
EGLESTON. 

These  lectures  are  what  their  title  indicates,  the  lectures  on  Mineralogy 
delivered  at  the  School  of  Mines  of  Columbia  College.  They  have  been 
printed  for  the  students,  in  order  that  more  time  might  be  given  to  the  vari- 
ous methods  of  examining  and  determining  minerals.  The  second  part  has 
only  been  printed.  The  first  part,  comprising  crystallography  and  physical 
mineralogy,  will  be  printed  at  some  future  time. 


1G  SCIEtfTIFIO  JIOOKS  PUBLISHED  11 Y 

Pynchon's  Chemical  Physics. 

New  Edition.    Revised  and  Enlarged. 

t  Crown  8vo.     Cloth.     $3.00. 

INTEODUCTION  TO  CHEMICAL  PHYSICS,  Designed  for  tlie 
Uso  of  Academies,  Colleges,  and  High.  Schools.  Illustrated  with, 
numerous  engravings,  and  containing  copious  experiments  with 
directions  for  preparing  them.  By  THOMAS  RUGGLES  PYXCHOX, 
M.A.,  Professor  of  Chemistry  and  the  Natural  Sciences,  Trinity 
College,  Hartford. 

Hitherto,  no  -work  suitable  for  general  use,  treating  of  all  theso  subjects 
within  the  limits  of  a  single  volume,  could  bo  found ;  consequently  tho  atten- 
tion they  have  received  has  not  boon  at  all  proportionate  to  their  importance. 
It  is  believed  that  a  book  containing  eo  much  valuable  information  within  so 
small  a  compass,  cannot  fail  to  meet  with  a  ready  sale  among-  all  intelligent 
persons,  while  Professional  men,  Physicians,  Medical  Students,  Photograph- 
ers, Telegraphers,  Engineers,  and  Artisans  generally,  will  find  it  specially 
valuable,  if  not  nearly  indispensable,  as  a  book  of  reference. 

"  TVe  strongly  recommend  this  able  treatise  to  our  readers  as  the  first 
work  ever  published  on  the  subject  free  from  perplexing  technicalities.  In 
style  it  is  pure,  in  description  graphic,  and  its  typographical  appearance  is 
artistic.  It  is  altogether  a  most  excellent  work." — Eclectic  Medical  Journal. 

"  It  treats  fully  of  Photography,  Telegraphy,  Steam  Engines,  and  tho 
various  applications  of  Electricity.  In  short,  it  is  a  carefully  prepared 
volume,  abreast  with  the  latest  scientific  discoveries  and  inventions.'' — Hart' 
ford  Courant. 

Plympton's  Blow-Pipe  Analysis. 

12mo.     Cloth.     $1 50. 

THE  BLOW-PIPE  :  A  Guide  to  Its  Use  in  the  Determination 
of  Salts  and  Minerals.  Compiled  from  various  sources,  by 
GEORGE  W.  PLYMPTOX,  C.E.,  A.M.,  Professor  of  Physical 
Science  in  the  Polytechnic  Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

"  This  manual  probably  has  no  superior  in  the  English  language  as  a  text- 
book for  beginners,  or  as  a  guide  to  the  student  working  without  a  teacher. 
To  the  latter  many  illustrations  of  the  utensils  and  apparatus  required  in 
using  the  blow-pipe,  as  well  as  the  fully  illustrated  description  of  the  blow- 
pipe flame,  will  be  especially  serviceable."— New  York  TeacJier. 


D.    VAN  NOSTHAND.  17 

Ure's  Dictionary. 

Sixth   Edition. 

London,  1872. 
8  vols.     Cvo.     Half  Russia.     $23.50. 

DICTIONARY  OF  AETS,  MANUFACTURES,  AND  MINES. 
By  ANDBEW  UEE,  M.D.  Sixth,  edition.  Edited  by  ROBERT  HUNT, 
F.R.S.,  greatly  enlarged  and  rewritten. 


Gases  in  Coal  Mines. 

18mo.     Boards.     50  cts. 

A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  GASES  MET  WITH 
IN  COAL  MINES.  By  the  late  J.  J.  ATKINSOX,  Govern- 
ment Inspector  of  Mines  for  the  County  of  Durham,  England. 


Watt's  Dictionary  of  Chemistry. 

Supplementary  Volume. 

8vo.    Cloth.     $9.00. 

This  volume  brings  the  Record  of  Chemical  Discovery  down  to  the  end  of 
the  year  1869,  including1  also  several  additions  to,  and  corrections  of,  former 
results  which  have  appeared  in  1870  and  1871. 

*..f*  Complete  Sets  of  the  Work,  New  and  Revised  edition,  including  above 
supplement.  6  vols.  8vo.  Cloth.  $62.00. 


Rammelsberg's  Chemical  Analysis. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $2.25. 

GUIDE  TO  A  COUESE  OF  QUANTITATIVE  CHEMICAL 
ANALYSIS,  ESPECIALLY  OF  MINERALS  AND  FUR- 
NACE PRODUCTS.  Illustrated  by  Examples.  By  C.  F. 
UAMMELSBEBG.  Translated  by  J.  TOWLEE,  M.D. 

This  work  has  been  translated,  and  is  now  published  expressly  for  those 
students  in  chemistry  whose  time  and  other  studies  in  colleges  do  not  permit 
them  to  enter  upon  the  more  elaborate  and  expensive  treatises  of  Fresenius 
and  others.  It  ia  the  condensed  labor  of  a  master  in  chemistry  and  of  a  prac- 
tical analyst. 


18  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

Eliot  and  Storer's  Qualitative 
Chemical  Analysis. 

New  Edition,  Revised. 

12mo.     Illustrated.     Cloth.     $1.50. 

A  COMPENDIOUS  MANUAL  OF  QUALITATIVE  CHEMI- 
CAL ANALYSIS.  By  CHARLES  "W.  ELIOT  and  FRANK  H.  STOKER. 
[Revised  with  the  Cooperation  of  the  Authors,  by  WILLIAM  RIP- 
LET  NICHOLS,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  Massachusetts  Insti- 
tute of  Technology. 

"  This  Manual  has  great  merits  as  a  practical  introduction  to  the  science 
and  the  art  of  which  it  treats.  It  contains  enough  of  the  theory  and  practice 
of  qualitative  analysis,  "  in  the  wet  way/'  to  bring  out  all  the  reasoning  in- 
volved in  the  science,  and  to  present  clearly  to  the  student  the  most  approved 
methods  of  the  art.  It  is  specially  adapted  for  exercises  and  experiments  in 
the  laboratory;  and  yet  its  classifications  and  manner  of  treatment  are  so 
systematic  and  logical  throughout,  as  to  adapt  it  in  a  high  degree  to  that 
higher  class  of  students  generally  who  desire  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
practical  methods  of  arriving  at  scientific  facts." — LutJieran  Observer. 

"  We  wish  every  academical  class  in  the  land  could  have  the  benefit  of  the 
fifty  exercises  of  two  hours  each  necessary  to  master  this  book.  Chemistry 
would  cease  to  be  a  mere  matter  of  memory,  and  become  a  pleasant  experi- 
mental and  intellectual  recreation.  "We  heartily  commend  this  little  volume 
to  the  notice  of  those  teachers  who  believe  in  using  the  sciences  as  means  of 
mental  discipline." — College  Courant. 


Craig's  Decimal  System. 

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WEIGHTS  AND  MEASUEES.  An  Account  of  the  Decimal 
System,  with  Tables  of  Conversion  for  Commercial  and  Scientific 
Uses.  By  B.  F.  CRAIG,  M.  D. 

"  The  most  lucid,  accurate,  and  useful  of  all  the  hand-books  on  this  subject 
that  we  have  yet  seen.  It  gives  forty-seven  tables  of  comparison  between  the 
English  and  French  denominations  of  length,  area,  capacity,  weight,  and  the 
Centigrade  and  Fahrenheit  thermometers,  with  clear  instructions  how  to  use 
them ;  and  to  this  practical  portion,  which  helps  to  make  the  transition  as 
easy  as  possible,  is  prefixed  a  scientific  explanation  of  the  errors  in  the  metric 
syetem,  and  how  they  may  be  corrected  in  the  laboratory." — Nation. 


J).    VAN  NO  STRAND.  39 

. 

Nugent  on  Optics. 

12mo.      Cloth.     $2.00 

TEEATISE  ON  OPTICS ;  or,  Light  and  Sight,  theoretically  and 
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trial Pursuits.  By  E.  NUGENT.  With  one  hundred  and  three 
illustrations. 

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signed to  afford  accurate  and  complete  information  to  all  interested  in  appli- 
cations of  the  science." — Round  Table. 


Barnard's  Metric  System. 

8vo.     Brown  cloth.     $3.00. 

THE  METRIC  SYSTEM  OF  WEIGHTS   AND  MEASURES. 

An  Address  delivered  before  the  Convocation  of  the  University  of 
the  State  of  New  York,  at  Albany,  August,  1871.  By  I'REDEKICK 
A.  P.  BARXARD,  President  of  Columbia  College,  New  York  City. 
Second  edition  from  the  Revised  edition  printed  for  the  Trustees 
of  Columbia  College.  Tinted  paper. 

"  It  is.  the  best  summary  of  the  arguments  in  favor  of  the  metric  weights 
and  measures  with  which  we  are  acquainted,  not  only  because  it  contains  in 
small  space  the  leading  facts  of  the  case,  but  because  it  puts  the  advocacy  of 
that  system  on  the  only  tenable  grounds,  namely,  the  great  convenience  of  a 
decimal  notation  of  weight  and  measure  as  well  as  money,  the  value  of  inter- 
national uniformity  in  the  matter,  and  the  fact  that  this  metric  system  is 
adopted  ani  m  general  use  by  the  majority  of  civilized  nations." — The  Nation. 


Butler  on  Ventilation.  1 

18mo.    Boards.    50  cts. 

VENTILATION    OF    BUILDINGS.      By    W.    F.    BUTLER. 

Illustrated. 

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swoll  our  bills  of  mortality,  we  commend  this  book  to  the  attention  of  philan- 
thropists as  well  as  to  architects."— Boston  Globe. 


20          SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  EY 


Harrison's  Mechanic's  Tool-Book. 

12mo.     Cloth.     $1.50. 

MECHANIC'S  TOOL  BOOK,  with  practical  rules  and  suggestions, 
for  the  use  of  Machinists,  Iron  "Workers,  and  others.  By  W.  B. 
HARRISON,  Associate  Editor  of  the  "  American  Artisan."  Illustra- 
ted with  44  engravings. 

"  This  work  is  specially  adapted  to  meet  the  wants  of  Machinists  and  work- 
ers in  iron  generally.  It  is  made  up  of  the  work-day  experience  of  an  intelli- 
gent and  ingenious  mechanic,  who  had  the  faculty  of  adapting  tools  to  various 
purposes.  The  practicability  of  his  plans  and  suggestions  are  made  apparent 
even  to  the  unpractised  eye  by  a  series  of  well-executed  wood  engravings." — 
Philadelphia  Inquirer. 

Pope's  Modern  Practice  of  the  Elec- 
tric Telegraph. 

Ninth   Edition.    8vo.    Cloth     $2.00. 

A  Hand-book  for  Electricians  and  Operators.  By  FRANK  L.  POPE. 
Seventh  edition.  Revised  and  enlarged,  and  fully  illustrated. 

Extract  from  Letter  of  Prof.  Morse. 

"  I  have  had  time  only  cursorily  to  examine  its  contents,  but  this  examina- 
tion has  resulted  in  great  gratification,  especially  at  the  fairness  and  unpre- 
judiced tone  of  your  whole  work. 

"  Your  illustrated  diagrams  are  admirable  and  beautifully  executed. 

"  I  think  all  your  instructions  in  the  use  of  the  telegraph  apparatus  judi- 
cious and  correct,  and  I  most  cordially  wish  you  success." 

Extract  from  Letter  of  Prof.  O.  W.  Hough,  of  the  Dudley  Observatery. 

"  There  is  no  other  work  of  this  kind  in  the  English  language  that  con- 
tains in  so  small  a  compass  so  much  practical  information  in  the  application 
of  galvanic  electricity  to  telegraphy.  It  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  one 
interested  in  telegraphy,  or  the  use  of  Batteries  for  other  purposes." 


Morse's  Telegraphic  Apparatus. 

Illustrated.     8vo.     Cloth.     $2.00. 

EXAMINATION  OF  THE  TELEGRAPHIC  APPARATUS 
AND  THE  PROCESSES  IN  TELEGAPHY.  By  SAMUEL  F. 
B.  MORSE,  LL.D.,  United  States  Commissioner  Paris  Universal 
Exposition,  1867. 


D.  VAST  NOSTHAND.  21 

Sabine's  History  of  the  Telegraph. 

12mo.  Cloth.     |1.25. 

HISTORY  AND  PROGRESS  OF  THE  ELECTRIC  TELE- 
GRAPH, with  Descriptions  of  somo  of  tho  Apparatus.  By 
ROBERT  SABIXE,  C.  E.  Second  edition,  -with  additions. 

CONTENTS. — I.  Early  Observations  of  Electrical  Phenomena.  II.  Tele- 
graphs by  Frictional  Electricity.  III.  Telegraphs  by  Voltaic  Electricity. 
IV.  Telegraphs  by  Electro-Magnetism  and  Magneto-Electricity.  V.  Tele- 
graphs now  in  use.  VI.  Overhead  Lines.  VII.  Submarine  Telegraph  Lines. 
VIII.  Underground  Telegraphs.  IX.  Atmospheric  Electricity. 

Haskins'    Galvanometer. 

Pocket  form.     Illustrated.     Morocco  tucks.     $2.00. 

THE  GALVANOMETER,  AND  ITS  USES;  a  Manual  for 
Electricians  and  Students.  By  0.  H.  HASKINS. 

"  We  hope  this  excellent  little  work  will  meet  with  the  sale  its  merits 
entitle  it  to.  To  every  telegrapher  who  owns,  or  uses  a  Galvanometer,  or 
ever  expects  to,  it  will  be  quite  indispensable." — The  Telegrapher. 


Galley's  Hand-Book  of  Telegraphy. 

8vo.     Cloth.    $5.00. 
A  HAND-BOOK   OF  PRACTICAL  TELEGEAPIIY.      By 

E.  S.  CITLLEY,  Engineer  to  the  Electric  and  International 
Telegraph   Company.    Fifth,  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 


Foster's  Submarine  Blasting. 

4to.     Cloth.     $3.50. 

SUBMAEINE  BLASTING  in  Boston  Harbor,  Massachusetts— 
Eemoval  of  Tower  and  Corwiii  Eocks.  By  Jonx  Gr.  FOSTER, 
Lieutenant-Colonel  of  Engineers,  and  Brevet  Major- General,  U. 
S.  Array.  Illustrated  with  seven  plates. 

LIST  OF  PLATES. — 1.  Sketch  of  the  Narrows,  Boston  Harbor.  2. 
To\vnsend's  Submarine  Drilling  Machine,  and  "Working  Vessel  attending. 
3.  Submarine  Drilling  Machine  employed.  4.  Details  of  Drilling  Machine 
employed.  5.  Cartridges  and  Tamping  used.  6.  Puses  and  Insulated  Y/irea 
used.  7.  Portable  Friction  Battery  used. 


22  SCIENTIFIC  IsOOXS  PUBLISHED  £ 

Barnes'  Submarine  Warfare. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $5.00. 

SUBMARINE  WARFARE,  DEFENSIVE  AND  OFFENSIVE. 

Comprising  a  full  and  complete  History  of  the  Invention  of  tlio 
Torpedo,  its  employment  in  War  and  results  of  its  use.  De- 
scriptions of  the  various  forms  of  Torpedoes,  Submarine  Batteries 
and  Torpedo  Boats  actually  used  in  War.  Methods  of  Ignition 
by  Machinery,  Contact  Fuzes,  and  Electricity,  and  a  full  account 
of  experiments  made  to  determine  the  Explosive  Force  of  Gun- 
powder under  Water.  Also  a  discussion  of  the  Offensive  Torpedo 
system,  its  effect  upon  Iron-Clad  Ship  systems,  and  influence  upon 
Future  Naval  Wars.  By  Lieut. -Commander  JOHN  S.  BARNES, 
U.  S.  N.  With  twenty  lithographic  plates  and  many  wood-cuts. 

"  A  book  important  to  military  men,  and  especially  so  to  engineers  and  ar- 
tillerists. It  consists  of  an  examination  of  the  various  offensive  and  defensive 
engines  that  have  been  contrived  for  submarine  hostilities,  including  a  discus- 
sion of  the  torpedo  system,  its  effects  upon  iron-clad  ship-systems,  and  its 
probable  influence  upon  future  naval  wars.  Plates  of  a  valuable  character 
accompany  the  treatise,  which  affords  a  useful  history  of  the  momentous  sub- 
ject it  discusses.  A  great  deal  of  useful  information  is  collected  in  its  pages, 
especially  concerning  the  inventions  of  SCHOLL  and  VEKDU,  and  of  JONES' 
and  HUNT'S  batteries,  as  well  as  of  other  similar  machines,  and  the  use  in 
submarine  operations  of  gun-cotton  and  nitro-glycerine." — JV.  T.  Times. 


Randall's  Quartz  Operator's  Hand- 

Book. 

12mo.     Cloth.     $2.00. 

QUARTZ  OPEEATOR'S   HAND-BOOK.     By   P.  M.  RANDALL. 

New  edition,  revised  and  enlarged.     Fully  illustrated. 

The  object  of  this  work  has  been  to  present  a  clear  and  comprehensive  ex- 
position of  mineral  veins,  and  the  means  and  modes  chiefly  employed  for  the 
mining  and  working  of  their  ores — more  especially  those  containing  gold  and 
iilver. 


D.    VAST  NOSTRAND.  23 

McOulloch's  Theory  of  Heat. 

8vo.  Cloth.     In  Press. 

AN  ELEMENTARY  TREATISE  ON  THE  MECHANI- 
CAL THEORY  OF  HEAT,  AND  ITS  APPLICATION 
TO  AIR  AND  STEAM  ENGINES.  By  Prof.  R.  S.  Mc- 

CULLOCH. 


Benet's  Chronoscope. 

Second  Edition. 

Illustrated.     4to.     Cloth.     $3.00. 

ELECTRO-BALLISTIC  MACHINES,  and  the  Schultz  Chrono- 
scope.  By  Lieutenant-Colonel  S.  V.  BENET,  Captain  of  Ordnance, 
U.  S.  Army. 

CONTENTS. — 1.  Ballistic  Pendulum.  2.  Gun  Pendulum.  3.  Use  of  Elec- 
tricity.  4.  Navez'  Machine.  5.  Vignotti's  Machine,  with  Plates.  6.  Ben  ton's 
Electro-Ballistic  Pendulum,  with  Plates.  7.  Leur's  Tro-Pendulum  Machine 
8.  Schultz's  Chronoscope,  with  two  Plates. 


Michaelis'  Chronograph.. 

4to.     Illustrated.     Cloth.     $3.00. 

THE  LE  BOULENGE  CHRONOGRAPH.  With  three  litho- 
graphed folding  plates  of  illustrations.  By  Brevet  Captain  0  E. 
MICHAELIS,  First  Lieutenant  Ordnance  Corps,  U.  S.  Army. 

"  The  excellent  monograph  of  Captain  Michaelis  enters  minutely  into  the 
details  of  construction  and  management,  and  gives  tables  of  the  times  of  flight 
calculated  upon  a  given  fall  of  the  chronometer  for  all  distances.  Captain 
Michaelis  has  done  good  service  in  presenting  this  work  to  his  brother  officers, 
describing,  as  it  does,  an  instrument  which  bids  fair  to  be  in  constant  use  in 
•ur  future  ballistic  experiments.'1 — Army  and  Navy  Journal, 


24          SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

Silversmith's  Hand-Book. 

Fourth  Edition. 

Illustrated.     12mo.     Cloth.     $3.00. 

A  PRACTICAL  HAND-BOOK  FOR  MINERS,  Metallurgists, 
and  Assayers,  comprising  the  most  recent  improvements  in  the 
disintegration,  amalgamation,  smelting,  and  parting  of  tlio 
Precious  Ores,  with  a  Comprehensive  Digest  of  the  Mining 
Laws.  Greatly  augmented,  revised,  and  corrected.  By  JULIUS 
SILVERSMITH.  Fourth  edition.  Profusely  illustrated.  1  vol. 
12mo.  Cloth.  $3.00. 

Ono  of  the  most  important  features  of  this  work  is  that  in  which  the 
metallurgy  of  the  precious  metals  is  treated  of.  In  it  the  author  has  endeav- 
ored to  embody  all  the  processes  for  the  reduction  and  manipulation  of  the 
precious  ores  heretofore  successfully  employed  in  G-ermany,  England,  Mexico, 
and  the  United  States,  together  with  such  as  have  been  more  recently  invented, 
and  not  yet  fully  tested — all  of  which  are  profusely  illustrated  and  easy  of 
comprehension. 


Simms'  Levelling. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $2.50. 

A  TREATISE  ON  THE  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF 
LEVELLING,  showing  its  application  to  purposes  of  Railway 
Engineering  and  the  Construction  of  Roads,  &c.  By  FREDERICK 
"W.  SIMMS,  C.  E.  From  the  fifth  London  edition,  revised  and 
corrected,  with  the  addition  of  Mr.  Law's  Practical  Examples  for 
Setting  Out  Railway  Curves.  Illustrated  with  three  lithographic 
plates  and  numerous  wood-cuts. 

"  One  of  the  most  important  text-books  for  the  general  surveyor,  and  there 
is  scarcely  a  question  connected  with  levelling  for  which  a  solution  would  be 
sought,  but  that  would  be  satisfactorily  answered  by  consulting  this  volume." 
— Mining  Journal. 

"  The  text-book  on  levelling  in  most  of  our  engineering  schools  and  col- 
leges."— Engineers. 

"The  publishers  have  rendered  a  substantial  service  to  the  profession, 
especially  to  the  younger  members,  by  bringing  out  the  present  edition  of 
Mr.  Simms'  useful  work." — Engineering. 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND.  25 

Stuart's    Successful    Engineer. 

ISrao.     Boards.    50  cents. 

HOW  TO  BECOME  A  SUCCESSFUL  ENGINEER:  Being 
Hints  to  Youths  intending  to  adopt  the  Profession.  By 
BERNARD  STUART,  Engineer.  Sixth  Edition. 

"A  valuable  little  book  of  sound,  sensible  advice  to  young  men  who 
wish  to  rise  in  the  most  important  of  the  professions." — Scientific  American. 


Stuart's  Naval  Dry  Docks. 

Twenty-four  engravings  on  steel. 
Fourth  Edition. 
4to.     Cloth.     $6.00. 

THE  NAVAL  DKY   DOCKS   OF    THE   UNITED    STATES. 

By  CHAKLES  B.  STUART.  Engineer  in  Chief  of  the  United  States 
Navy. 

List  of  Illustrations. 

Pumping  Engine  and  Pumps — Plan  of  Dry  Dock  and  Pump- Well  —  Sec- 
tions of  Dry  Dock — Engine  House — Iron  Floating  Gate — Details  of  Floating 
Gate — Iron  Turning  Gate — Plan  of  Turning  Gate — Culvert  Gate — Filling 
Culvert  Gates — Engine  Bed — Plate,  Pumps,  and  Culvert — Engine  House 
Roof — Floating  Sectional  Dock — Details  of  Section,  and  Plan  of  Turn-Tables 
— Plan  of  Basin  and  Marine  Railways — Plan  of  Sliding  Frame,  and  Elevation 
of  Pumps — Hydraulic  Cylinder — Plan  of  Gearing  for  Pumps  and  End  Floats 
— Perspective  View  of  Dock,  Basin,  and  Railway — Plan  of  Basin  of  Ports- 
mouth Dry  Dock — Floating  Balance  Dock — Elevation  of  Trusses  and  the  Ma- 
chinery— Perspective  View  of  Balance  Dry  Dock 


Free  Hand  Drawing. 

Profusely  Illustrated.     18mo.    Boards.     50  cents. 

A  GUIDE  TO  ORNAMENTAL,  Figure,   and  Landscape  Draw- 
ing.    By  an  Art  Student. 

CONTENTS. — Materials  employed  in  Drawing,  and  how  to  use  them — On 
Lines  and  how  to  Draw  them — On  Shading — Concerning  lines  and  shading, 
with  applications  of  them  to  simple  elementary  subjects — Sketches  from  Na- 
ture. 


26  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

Minifie's  Mechanical  Drawing. 

Ninth    Edition. 

Hoyal  8vo.     Cloth.     $4.00. 

A  TEXT-BOOK  OF  GEOMETKICAL  DRAWING-  for  the  use 
of  Mechanics  and  Schools,  in  which  the  Definitions  and  Rules  of 
Geometry  are  familiarly  explained ;  the  Practical  Problems  aro 
arranged,  from  the  most  simple  to  the  more  complex,  and  in  their 
description  technicalities  are  avoided  as  much  as  possible.  With 
illustrations  for  Drawing  Plans,  Sections,  and  Elevations  of 
Buildings  and  Machinery ;  an  Introduction  to  Isometrical  Draw- 
ing, and  an  Essay  on  Linear  Perspective  and  Shadows.  Illus- 
trated with  over  200  diagrams  engraved  on  steel.  By  WM, 
MINIFIE,  Architect.  Eighth  Edition.  With  an  Appendix  on  the 
Theory  and  Application  of  Colors. 

"  It  is  the  best  -work  on  Drawing1  that  -wo  have  ever  seen,  and  is  especially  a 
text-book  of  Geometrical  Drawing1  for  the  use  of  Mechanics  and  Schools.  No 
young  Mechanic,  such  as  a  Machinist,  Engineer,  Cabinet-Maker,  Millwright, 
or  Carpenter,  should  be  without  it." — Scientific  American. 

"  One  of  the  most  comprehensive  works  of  the  kind  ever  published,  and  can- 
not but  possess  great  value  to  builders.  The  style  is  at  once  elegant  and  sub- 
stantial. " — Pennsylvania  Inquirer. 

"  Whatever  is  said  is  rendered  perfectly  intelligible  by  remarkably  well- 
executed  diagrams  on  steel,  leaving-  nothing  for  mere  vaguo  supposition ;  and 
the  addition  of  an  introduction  to  isometrical  drawing,  linear  perspective,  and 
the  projection  of  shadows,  winding  up  with  a  useful  index  to  technical  terms." 
— Glasgow  Mechanics'  Journal. 

2Sir°  The  British  Government  has  authorized  the  use  of  this  book  in  their 
schools  of  art  at  Somerset  House,  London,  and  throughout  the  kingdom. 


Minifie's  Geometrical  Drawing. 

Neiv  Edition.    Enlarged. 

12mo.     Cloth.     $2.00. 

GEOMETEICAL  DBA  WING.  Abridged  from  the  octavo  edition, 
for  the  use  of  Schools.  Illustrated  with  48  steel  plates.  New 
edition,  enlarged. 

"  It  is  well  adapted  as  a  text-book  of  drawing  to  be  used  in  our  High  Schools 
and  Academies  where  this  useful  branch  of  the  fine  arts  has  been  hitherto  too 
much  neglected." — Boston  Journal. 


D.    VAN  NOSTRAND.  27 

Bell  on  Iron  Smelting. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $6.00. 

CHEMICAL  PHENOMENA  OF  IEON  SMELTING.  An  ex- 
perimental and  practical  examination  of  the  circumstances  which 
determine  the  capacity  of  the  Blast  Furnace,  the  Temperature 
of  the  Air,  and  the  Proper  Condition  of  the  Materials  to  be 
operated  upon.  By  I.  LOWTHIAN  BELL. 

Battershall's  Legal  Chemistry, 

Illustrated.     12mo.     Cloth.     In  press. 

LEGAL  CHEMISTRY.  A  Guide  to  the  detection  of  Poisons, 
Falsification  of  Writings,  Adulteration  of  Alimentary  and 
Pharmaceutical  Substances ;  Analysis  of  Ashes,  and  Examina- 
tion of  Hair,  Coins,  Fire-Arms,  and  Stains,  as  applied  to 
Chemical  Jurisprudence.  For  the  use  of  Chemists,  Physi- 
cians, Lawyers,  Pharmacists,  and  Experts.  Translated  with 
'additions,  including  a  list  of  books  and  memoirs  on  Toxi- 
cology, etc.,  from  the  French  of  A.  NAQUET.  By  J.  P.  BAT- 
TERSIIALL,  Ph.D.,  with  a  Preface  by  C.  F.  CHANDLER,  Ph.D., 
M.D.,  LL.D. 

Zing's  Notes  on  Steam. 

Nineteentli  Edition. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $2.00. 

LESSONS  AND  PEACTICAL  NOTES  ON  STEAM,  the  Steam- 
Engine,  Propellers,  &c.,  &c.,  for  Young  Engineers,  Students,  and 
others.  By  the  late  W.  K.  KING,  U.  S.  N.  Revised  by  Chief- 
Engineer  J.  W.  KING,  U.  S.  Navy. 

"  This  is  one  of  the  best,  because  eminently  plain  and  practical  treatises  on. 
the  Steam  Engine  ever  published/' — Philadelphia  Press, 

This  is  the  thirteenth  edition  of  a  valuable  work  of  the  late  "W.  H.  King, 
TJ.  S.  N.  It  contains  lessons  and  practical  notes  on  Steam  and  the  Steam  En- 
gine, Propellers,  etc.  It  is  calculated  to  be  of  great  use  to  young  marine  en- 
gineers, students,  and  others.  The  text  is  illustrated  and  explained  by  nu- 
merous diagrams  and  representations  of  machinery. — Boston  Daily 
User. 

Text-book  at  the  U,  S.  Naval  Academy,  Annapolig. 


28          SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

Burgh's  Modern  Marine  Engineering. 

One  thick  4to  vol.     Cloth.     $25.00.     Half  morocco.     $30.00. 

MODEKN  MAEINE  ENGINEERING,  applied  to  Paddle  and 
Screw  Propulsion.  Consisting  of  36  Colored  Plates,  259  Practical 
Wood-cut  Illustrations,  and  403  pages  of  Descriptive  Matter,  tho 
whole  being  an  exposition  of  the  present  practice  of  the  follow- 
ing firms  :  Messrs.  J.  Penn  &  Sons ;  Messrs.  Maudslay,  Sons  & 
Field ;  Messrs.  James  Watt  &  Co. ;  Messrs.  J.  &  G.  Rennio  ; 
Messrs.  K.  Napier  &  Sons  ;  Messrs.  J.  &  W.  Dudgeon ;  Messrs. 
Kavenhill  &  Hodgson ;  Messrs.  Humphreys  &  Tenant ;  Mr. 
J.  T.  Spencer,  and  Messrs.  Forrester  &  Co.  By  N.  P.  Bunon, 
Engineer. 

PRINCIPAL,  CONTENTS. — General  Arrangements  of  Engines,  11  examples 
— General  Arrangement  of  Boilers,  14  examples  —  General  Arrangement  of 
Superheaters,  11  examples — Details  of  Oscillating  Paddle  Engines,  34  ex- 
amples— Condensers  for  Screw  Engines,  both  Injection  and  Surface,  20  ex- 
amples— Details  of  Screw  Engines,  20  examples — Cylinders  and  Details  of 
Screw  Engines,  21  examples — Slide  Valves  and  Details,  7  examples — Slido 
Valve,  Link  Motion,  7  examples — Expansion  Valves  and  Gear,  10  exam- 
ples— Details  in  General,  80  examples— Screw  Propeller  and  Fittings,  13  ex- 
amples -  Engine  and  Boiler  Fittings,  28  examples  -  Iii  relation  to  the  Princi- 
ples of  the  Marine  Engine  and  Boiler,  33  examples. 

Notices  of  the  Press. 

"Every  conceivable  detail  of  the  Marine  Engine,  under  all  its  various 
forms,  is  profusely,  and  "we  must  add,  admirably  illustrated  by  a  multitude 
of  engravings,  selected  from  the  best  and  most  modern  practice  of  tho  first 
Marine  Engineers  of  the  day.  The  chapter  on  Condensers  is  peculiarly  valu- 
able. In  one  word,  there  is  no  other  work  in  existence  which  will  bear  a 
moment's  comparison  with  it  as  an  exponent  of  the  skill,  talent  and  practical 
experience  to  which  is  due  the  splendid  reputation  enjoyed  by  many  British 
Marine  Engineers." — Engineer. 

"  This  very  comprehensive  work,  which  was  issued  in  Monthly  parts,  has 
just  been  completed.  It  contains  large  and  full  drawings  and  copious  de- 
ecriptiona  of  most  of  the  best  examples  of  Modern  Marine  Engines,  and  it  is 
a  complete  theoretical  and  practical  treatise  on  the  subject  of  Marine  Engi- 
neering."— American  Artisan. 

\     This  is  the  only  edition  of  tho  above  work  with  the  beautifully  colored 
plates,  and  it  is  out  of  print  in  England. 


D.   VAJV  NOSTRAND. 


Bourne's  Treatise  on  the  Steam  En 

gine. 

Ninth  Edition. 

Illustrated.     4to.     Cloth.     $15.00. 

TREATISE  ON  THE  STEAM  ENGINE  in  its  various  applica, 
tions  to  Mines,  Mills,  Steam  Navigation,  Railways,  and  AgricuL 
ture,  with,  the  theoretical  investigations  respecting  the  Motive 
Power  of  Heat  and  the  proper  Proportions  of  Steam  Engines. 
Elaborate  Tables  of  the  right  dimensions  of  every  part,  and 
Practical  Instructions  for  the.  Manufacture  and  Management  of 
every  species  of  Engine  in  actual  use.  By  JO-HIT  BOUJETE,  being 
the  ninth,  edition  of  "A  Treatise  on  the  Steam  Engine,"  by 
the  "Artisan  Club."  Illustrated  by  thirty-eight  plates  and  fivo 
hundred  and  forty-six  wood-cuts. 

As  I»Ir.  Bourne's  -work  has  the  great  merit  of  avoiding  unsound  and  imma- 
ture views,  it  may  safely  be  consulted  by  all  who  are  really  desirous  of  ac- 
quiring trustworthy  information  on  the  subject  of  which  it  treats.  During 
the  twenty-two  years  which  have  elapsed  from  the  issue  of  the  first  edition, 
the  improvements  introduced  in  the  construction  of  the  steam  engine  have 
been  both  numerous  and  important,  and  of  these  Mr.  Bourne  has  taken  care 
to  point  out  the  more  prominent,  and  to  furnish  the  reader  with  such  infor- 
mation as  shall  enable  him  readily  to  judge  of  their  relative  value.  This  edi- 
tion has  been  thoroughly  modernized,  and  made  to  accord  with  the  opinions 
and  practice  of  the  more  successful  engineers  of  the  present  day.  All  that 
the  book  professes  to  give  is  given  with  ability  and  evident  care.  The  scien- 
tific principles  which  are  permanent  are  admirably  explained,  and  reference 
is  made  to  many  of  the  more  valuable  of  the  recently  introduced  engines.  To 
express  an  opinion  of  the  value  and  utility  of  such  a  work  as  The  Artisan 
CluUs  Treatise  on  the  Steam  Engine,  which  has  passed  through  eight  editions 
already,  would  be  superfluous  ;  but  it  may  be  safely  stated  that  the  work  is 
worthy  the  attentive  study  of  all  either  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  steam 
engines  or  interested  in  economizing  the  use  of  steam.  —  Mining  Journal. 


Islierwood's  Engineering  Precedents. 

Two  Vols.  in  One.     8vo.     Cloth.     $2.50. 

ENGINEEEING-  PEECEDENTS  FOE  STEAM  MACHINEET. 
Arranged  in  the  most  practical  and  useful  manner  for  Engineers. 
By  B.  F.  ISHEBWOOD,  Civil  Engineer,  U.  S.  Navy.  With  illus- 
trations. 


SO  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 

Ward's  Steam  for  the  Million. 

New  and  Revised  Edition, 

Svo.  Cloth.     $1.00. 

STEAM  FOB  THE  MILLION.  A  Popular  Treatise  on  Steam 
and  its  Application  to  the  Useful  Arts,  especially  to  Naviga- 
tion. By  J.  H.  \VAED,  Commander  U.  S.  Navy.  New  and  re- 
vised edition. 

A  most  excellent  work  for  the  young  engineer  and  general  reader.  Many 
facts  relating  to  the  management  of  the  boiler  and  engine  are  set  forth  with  a 
simplicity  of  language  and  perfection  of  detail  that  bring  the  subject  home 
to  the  reader. — American  Engineer. 


Walker's  Screw  Propulsion. 

8vo.     Cloth.     75  cents. 

NOTES  ON  SCEEW  PEOPULSION,  its  Bise  and  History.     By 
Capt.  W.  H.  WALKES,  U.  S.  Navy. 

Commander  Walker's  book  contains  an  immense  amount  of  concise  practi- 
cal data,  and  every  item  of  information  recorded  fully  proves  that  the  various 
points  bearing  upon  it  have  been  well  considered  previously  to  expressing  aa 
opinion. — London  Mining  Journal. 


Page's  Earth's  Crust. 

ISmo.     Cloth.     75  cents. 

THE  EAETH'S  CEUST  :    a   Handy   Outline   of  Geology.      By 
PAGE. 


"  Such  a  work  as  this  was  much  wanted  —  a  work  giving  in  clear  and  intel- 
ligible outline  the  leading  facts  of  the  science,  without  amplification  or  irk- 
some details.  It  is  admirable  in  arrangement,  and  clear  and  easy,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  forcible  in  style.  It  will  lead,  we  hope,  to  the  introduction  of 
Geology  into  many  schools  that  have  neither  time  nor  room  for  the  study  of 
large  treatises."  —  The  Museum. 


D.  VAX  1TOSTRAN1}. 


Rogers'  G-eology  of  Pennsylvania. 

3  Vols.  4to,  with  Portfolio  of  Maps.     Cloth.    $30.00. 

THE  GEOLOGY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA.  A  Government  Sur- 
vey. With  a  general  view  of  the  Geology  of  the  United  States, 
Essays  on  the  Coal  Formation  and  its  Fossils,  and  a  description 
of  the  Coal  Fields  of  North  America  and  Great  Britain.  By 
HENRY  DABWIN  ROGERS,  Late  State  Geologist  of  Pennsylvania. 
Splendidly  illustrated  with  Plates  and  Engravings  in  the  Text. 

It  certainly  should  be  in  every  public  library  throughout  the  country,  and 
likewise  in  the  possession  of  all  students  of  Geology.  After  the  final  sale  of 
these  copies,  the  work  will,  of  course,  become  more  valuable. 

The  work  for  the  last  five  years  has  been  entirely  out  of  the  market,  but  a 
few  copies  that  remained  in  the  hands  of  Prof.  Rogers,  in  Scotland,  at  the 
time  of  his  death,  are  now  offered  to  the  public,  at  a  price  which  is  evea 
below  what  it  was  originally  sold  for  when  first  published. 


Elliot's  European  Light-Houses. 

51  Engravings  and  21  Wood-cuts.    8vo.     Cloth.     $5.00. 

EUROPEAN  LIGHT-HOUSE  SYSTEMS.  Being  a  Report  of 
a  Tour  of  Inspection  made  in  1873.  By  Major  GEORGE  H. 
ELLIOT,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.S.A.,  member  and  Engineer 
Secretary  of  the  Light-house  Board. 


Sweet's  Report  on  Coal. 

8vo.     Cloth.     $3.00.  % 

SPECIAL  REPORT  ON  COAL  ;  showing  its  Distribution,  Classi- 
fication, and  Cost  delivered  over  different  routes  to  various  points 
in  the  State  of  New  York,  and  the  principal  cities  on  the  Atlantic 
Coast.  By  S.  H.  SWEET.  With  maps. 


Colbnrn's  Gas  Works  of  London. 

12mo.     Boards.     60  cents. 
GAS  WORKS  OF  LONDON.     By  ZEBAH  COLBUEN. 


SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 


The  Useful  Metals  and  their  Alloys ; 
Scofiren,  Traraii,  and  others. 

Fifth  Edition. 

8vo.     Half  calf.     $3.75. 

THE  USEFUL  METALS  AND  THEIE  ALLOYS,  including 
MINING  VENTILATION,  MINING-  JURISPRUDENCE 
AND  METALLUEGIC  CHEMISTRY  employed  in  the  conver- 
sion of  IEON,  COPPER,  TIN,  ZINC,  ANTIMONY,  AND 
LEAD  OEES,  with  their  applications  to  THE  INDUSTEIAL 
ARTS.  By  JOHN  SCOFFHEN,  WILLIAM  TEHRAN,  WILLIAM  CLAY, 
ROBERT  OXLAND,  WILLIAM  FAIRBAIRN,  W,  C.  AITKIN,  and  WIL- 
LIAM VOSE  PICKETT. 


Collins'  Useful  Alloys. 

ISmo.     Flexible.     75  cents. 

THE  PRIVATE  BOOK  OF  USEFUL  ALLOYS  and  Memo- 
randa for  Goldsmiths,  Jewellers,  etc.  By  JAMES  E.  COLLINS 

This  little  book  is  compiled  from  notes  made  by  the  Author  from  the 
papers  of  one  of  the  largest  and  most  eminent  Manufacturing  Goldsmiths  and 
Jewellers  in  this  country,  and  as  the  firm  is  now  no  longer  in  existence,  and  the 
Author  is  at  present  engaged  in  some  other  undertaking,  he  now  offers  to  the 
public  the  benefit  of  his  experience,  and  in  so  doing  he  begs  to  state  that  all 
the  alloys,  etc.,  given  in  these  pages  may  be  confidently  relied  on  as  being 
thoroughly  practicable. 

The  Memoranda  and  Receipts  throughout  this  book  are  also  compiled 
from  practice,  and  will  no  doubt  be  found  useful  to  the  practical  jeweller. 
—Shirley,  July,  1871. 

Joynson's  Metals  Used  in  Construction. 

12mo.    Cloth.    75  cents. 

THE  METALS  USED  IN  CONSTRUCTION:  Iron,  Steel, 
Bessemer  Metal,  etc.,  etc.  By  FEANCIS  HEEBERT  JOYNSON.  Il- 
lustrated. 

"  In  the  interests  of  practical  science,  we  are  bound  to  notice  this  work ; 
and  to  those  who  wish  further  information,  we  should  say,  buy  it ;  and  the 
outlay,  we  honestly  believe,  will  be  considered  well  spent." — Scientific 
Review. 


D.    VAN  NO  STRAND.  33 

Prescott's  Proximate  Organic 
Analysis. 

12mo.     Cloth.    $1.75. 

OUTLINES  OF  PROXIMATE  ORGANIC  ANALYSIS 
for  the  Identification,  Separation,  and  Quantitative  Deter- 
mination of  the  more  commonly  occurring  Organic  Com- 
pounds. By  ALBERT  B.  PRESCOTT,  Professor  of  Organic 
and  Applied  Chemistry  in  the  University  of  Michigan. 


Prescott's  Alcoholic  Liquors. 

12mo.     Cloth.    $1.50. 

CHEMICAL  EXAMINATION  OF  ALCOHOLIC  LI- 
QUORS. A  Manual  of  the  Constituents  of  the  Distilled 
Spirits  and  Fermented  Liquors  of  Commerce,  and  their 
Qualitative  and  Quantitative  Determinations.  By  ALBERT 
B.  PRESCOTT,  Professor  of  Organic  and  Applied  Chemistry 
in  the  University  of  Michigan. 


Greene's  Bridge  Trusses. 

8vo.    Illustrated.     Cloth.     $2.00. 

GRAPHICAL  METHOD  FOR  THE  ANALYSTS  OF 
BRIDGE  TRUSSES,  extended  to  Continuous  Girders 
and  Draw  Spans.  By  CHARLES  E.  GREENE,  A.M.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Civil  Engineering,  University  of  Michigan.  Illus- 
trated by  three  folding  plates. 


Butler's  Projectiles  and  Rifled  Gannon. 

4to.     86  Plates.     Cloth.      $7.50. 

PROJECTILES  AND  RIFLED  CANNON.  A  Critical  Dis- 
cussion of  the  Principal  Systems  of  Rifling  and  Projectiles, 
with  practical  suggestions  for  their  improvement,  as  embraced 
in  a  report  to  the  Chief  of  Ordnance,  U.  S.  Army. .  By  Capt. 
JOHN"  S.  BUTLER,  Ordnance  Corps,  U.  S.  A. 


34  SCIENTIFIC  BOOK.4  PUDLiSIIED  JJ  1 

Peirce's  Analytic  Mechanics, 

4to.     Cloth.     $10.00. 

SYSTEM  OF  ANALYTIC  MECHANICS.  By  BENJAMIN 
PEIECE,  Perkins  Professor  of  Astronomy  and  Mathematics  in 
Harvard  University,  and  Consulting  Astronomer  of  the 
American  Ephemeris  and  Nautical  Almanac. 

"  I  have  re-examined  the  memoirs  of  the  great  geometers,  and  have  striven 
to  consolidate  their  latest  researches  and  their  most  exalted  forms  of  thought 
into  a  consistent  and  uniform  treatise.  If  I  have  hereby  succeeded  in  open- 
ing to  the  students  of  my  country  a  readier  access  to  these  choice  jewels  of 
intellect ;  if  their  "brilliancy  is  not  impaired  in  this  attempt  to  reset  them ;  if, 
in  their  own  constellation,  they  illustrate  each  other,  and  concentrate 
a  stronger  light  upon  the  names  of  their  discoverers ,  and,  still  more,  if  any 
gem  which  I  may  have  presumed  to  add  is  not  wholly  lustreless  in  the  collec- 
tion, I  shall  feel  that  my  work  has  not  been  in  vain." — Extract  from  the  Pre- 
face. 

Burt's  Key  to  Solar  Compass, 

Second  Edition. 

Pocket  Book  Form.     Tuck.     $2.50. 

KEY  TO  THE  SOLAR  COMPASS,  and  Surveyor's  Companion ; 
comprising  all  the  Rules  necessary  for  use  in  the  field;  also, 
Description  of  the  Linear  Surveys  and  Public  Land  System  of 
the  United  States,  Notes  on  the  Barometer,  Suggestions  for  an 
outfit  for  a  Survey  of  four  months,  etc.,  etc.,  etc.  By  W.  A. 
BUHT,  U.  S.  Deputy  Surveyor.  Second  edition. 


Chauvenet's  Lunar  Distances. 

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NEW  METHOD  OF  CORRECTING  LUNAR  DISTANCES, 
and  Improved  Method  of  Finding  the  Error  and  Rate  of  a  Chro- 
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cellor of  Washington  University  of  St.  Louis. 


D.   VAN  NOSTRAND.  35 


Jeffers'  Nautical  Surveying. 

Illustrated  with  9  Copperplates  and  31  Wood-cut  Illustrations.     8vo. 
Cloth.      $5.00. 

NAUTICAL  SUBVEYING.     By  WILLIAM  N.  JEFFEES,  Captain 

U.  S.  Navy. 

Many  books  have  been  written  on  each  of  the  subjects  treated  of  in  the 
sixteen  chapters  of  this  work;  and,  to  obtain  a  complete  knowledge  of 
geodetic  surveying  requires  a  profound  study  of  the  whole  range  of  mathe- 
matical and  physical  sciences ;  but  a  year  of  preparation  should  render  any 
intelligent  officer  competent  to  conduct  a  nautical  survey. 

CONTENTS.— Chapter  I.  Formula  and  Constants  Useful  in  Surveying 
II.  Distinctive  Character  of  Surveys.  III.  Hydrographic  Surveying  under 
Sail ;  or,  Running  Survey.  IV.  Hydrographic  Surveying  of  Boats ;  or,  Har- 
bor Survey.  V.  Tides — Definition  of  Tidal  Phenomena — Tidal  Observations. 
VI.  Measurement  of  Bases— Appropriate  and  Direct.  VII.  Measurement  of 
the  Angles  of  Triangles — Azimuths — Astronomical  Bearings.  VIII.  Correc- 
tions to  be  Applied  to  the  Observed  Angles.  IX.  Levelling — Difference  of 
Level.  X.  Computation  of  the  Sides  of  the  Triangulation — The  Three-point 
Problem.  XI.  Determination  of  the  Geodetic  Latitudes,  Longitudes,  and 
Azimuths,  of  Points  of  a  Triangulation.  XII.  Summary  of  Subjects  treated 
of  in  preceding  Chapters — Examples  of  Computation  by  various  Formulae. 
XIII.  Projection  of  Charts  and  Plans.  XIV.  Astronomical  Determination  of 
Latitude  and  Longitude.  XV.  Magnetic  Observations.  XVI.  Deep  Sea 
Soundings.  XVII.  Tables  for  Ascertaining  Distances  at  Sea,  and  a  full 
Index. 

List  of  Plates. 

Plate  I.  Diagram  Illustrative  of  the  Triangulation.     II.  Specimen  Page 

of  Field  Book.     III.  Running  Survey  of  c,  Coast.     IV.  Example  of  a  Running 

Survey  from  Belcher.     V.  Flying  Survey  of  an  Island.     VI.  Survey  of  a 

f  Shoal.      VII.  Boat  Survey  of  a  River.      VIII.  Three-Point  Problem.      IX. 

Triangulation. 

Coffin's  Navigation. 

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METHOD  OF  COMPARING  THE  LINES  AND  DRAUGHT- 
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I).  VAN  NOS TIIAND.  37 

Van  Buren's  Formulas. 

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Barnard's  Report,  Paris  Exposition, 

1867. 

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Exposition,  1867. 

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D.    VAN  NOSTllANtil  39 

K     r^  « 

^^       ^^  vi 

Stuart's  Civil  and  Military  Engines] 
ing  of  America. 

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D.   VAN  NOSTRAND.  41 


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/>.    VAX  NOSTRANV.  43 


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REPORT  made  to  the  President  and  Executive  Board  of  the 
Texas  Pacific  Railroad.  By  Gen.  G.  P.  BUELL,  Chief  Engineer. 
8vo.  Paper.  75  cents. 


40  SCIENCE  SERIES  PUBLISHED  BY 


Van    Nostrand's    Science    Series. 

It  is  the  intention  of  the  Publisher  of  this  Series  to  issue  them  at  inter- 
vals of  about  a  month.  They  will  be  put  up  in  a  uniform,  neat  and  attrac- 
tive form,  18mo,  fancy  boards.  The  subjects  will  be  of  an  eminently 
scientific  character,  and  embrace  as  wide  a  range  of  topics  as  possible,  all 
of  the  highest  character. 

Price,  50  Cents  Each. 
1. 

CHIMNEYS  FOR  FURNACES,  FIRE-PLACES,  AND 
STEAM  BOILERS.  By  R.  ARMSTRONG,  C.  E. 

0. 

STEAM  BOILER  EXPLOSIONS.    By  ZERAII  COLBURX. 

s. 

PRACTICAL  DESIGNING  OF  RETAINING  WALLS 
By  ARTHUR  JACOB,  A.  B.  With  Illustrations. 

4. 

PROPORTIONS  OF  PINS  USED  IN  BRIDGES.  By 
CHARLES  E.  BENDER,  C.  E.  With  Illustrations. 

5. 

VENTILATION  OF  BUILDINGS.  By  W.  F.  BUTLER.  With 
Illustrations. 

e. 

ON  THE  DESIGNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  STOR- 
AGE RESERVOIRS.  By  ARTHUR  JACOB.  With  Illustra- 
tions. 

7. 

SURCHARGED  AND  DIFFERENT  FORMS  OF  RETAIN- 
ING WALLS.  By  JAMES  S.  TATE,  C.  E. 

8. 

A  TREATISE  ON  THE  COMPOUND  ENGINE.  By  JOHJT 
TURXBULL.  With  Illustrations. 

9. 

FUEL.  By  C.  W.  SIEMENS  to  which  is  appended  the  Value  of 
Artificial  Fuels  as  compared  with  Coal.  By  J.  WORM ALD,  C.  E. 

10. 

COMPOUND  ENGINES.      Translated  from  the  French  of 
A.  MALLET.     Illustrated. 


D.    VAN  NO  STRAND.  47 

11. 

THEORY  OP  ARCHES.  By  Prof.  W.  ALLAN,  of  the 
Washington  and  Lee  College.  Illustrated. 

12. 

A  PRACTICAL  THEORY  OF  VOUSSOIR  ARCHES.  By 
WILLIAM  CAIN,  C.E.  Illustrated. 

13. 

A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  GASES  MET 
WITH  IN  COAL-MINES.  By  the  late  J.  J.  ATKINSON, 
Government  Inspector  of  Mines  for  the  County  of  Durham, 
England. 

14. 

FRICTION  OF  AIR  IN  MINES.  By  J.  J.  ATKINSON, 
author  of  "  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Gases  met  with  in 
Coal-Mines." 

15. 

SKEW  ARCHES.  By  Prof.  E.  W.  HYDE,  C.E.  Illustrated 
with  numerous  engravings  and  three  folded  plates. 

16. 

A  GRAPHIC  METHOD  FOR  SOLVING  CERTAIN  AL- 
GEBRAIC EQUATIONS.  By  Prof.  GEOKGE  L.  VOSE. 
With  illustrations. 

17. 

WATER  AND  WATER  SUPPLY.  By  Prof.  W.  H.  COR- 
FIELD,  M.A.,  of  the  University  College,  London. 

18. 

SEWERAGE  AND  SEWAGE  UTILIZATION.  By  Prof. 
W.  H.  CORFIELD,  M.A.,  of  the  University  College,  London. 

19. 

STRENGTH  OF  BEAMS  UNDER  TRANSVERSE 
LOADS.  By  Prof.  W.  ALLAN,  author  of  "Theory  of 
Arches."  With  illustrations. 


>TT 


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